IFR

STANDARD OPERATIONAL
PROCEDURES
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CORRECTIONS AND AMENDMENTS SHEET

DATE OF DATE OF
REVISION RESPONSIBLE NOTES
REVISION EFFECTIVENESS

3.0 28/10/2021 28/10/2021 CFI New SOP

Part B - Advanced IFR
3.1 07/03/2022 07/03/2022 CFI
Procedures
3.2 01/10/2022 01/11/2022 CFI Minor corrections
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Indice
A. BASIC & INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT TRAINING..................................................... 0
A.1. CHANGES OF CRUISE / STRAIGHT AND LEVEL FLIGHT ........................... 0
A.2. TURNS ........................................................................................................... 0
A.2.1. COMPASS TURNS ................................................................................. 0
A.3. CHANGES OF CRUISE WITH TURNS .......................................................... 1
A.4. CLIMBS AND DESCENDS ............................................................................. 1
A.5. COORDINATION MANEUVERS .................................................................... 1
A.5.1. S0 - STRAIGHT "S" ................................................................................. 2
A.5.2. S1 - CHANGE TURN AT BOTTOM ......................................................... 2
A.5.3. S2 - CHANGE TURN AT TOP ................................................................. 2
A.5.4. S3 - CHANGE TURN AT BOTTOM AND TOP......................................... 3
A.5.5. S4 - MAINTAINED TURN ........................................................................ 3
A.6. TIMED TURNS ............................................................................................... 3
A.7. STRAIGHT TIMED CLIMBS AND DESCENTS ............................................... 4
A.8. SPIRALS ........................................................................................................ 4
A.9. PATTERN “B” ................................................................................................. 5
A.10. INTERCEPTIONS ..................................................................................... 10
A.10.1. TRACKING ........................................................................................ 10
A.10.2. ARRIVALS ......................................................................................... 11
A.10.3. DEPARTURES .................................................................................. 16
A.11. HOLDING PROCEDURES ........................................................................ 19
A.11.1. DETERMINING THE ENTRY PROCEDURE ..................................... 21
A.11.2. ENTRY PROCEDURES ..................................................................... 22
A.12. DME ARC ................................................................................................. 25
A.13. POINT TO POINT NAVIGATION............................................................... 26
B. ADVANCED IFR PROCEDURES .......................................................................... 0
B.1. PROCEDURES PRIOR TO DEPARTURE...................................................... 0
B.1.1. METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS-GENERAL ...................................... 0
B.1.2. MULTI ENGINE AIRCRAFT .................................................................... 0
B.1.3. RADIO SET-UP ....................................................................................... 0
B.2. EN-ROUTE ..................................................................................................... 1
B.2.1. GENERAL ............................................................................................... 1
B.2.2. OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ....................................................................... 1
B.2.3. STANDARD OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES ......................................... 1
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B.3. APPROACH ................................................................................................... 2

B.3.1. CATEGORIES OF AIRCRAFT................................................................. 2
B.4. ARRIVALS ...................................................................................................... 2
B.4.1. GUIDELINES TO DESCENT IN NPAs..................................................... 2
B.4.2. WIND CORRECTIONS FOR APPROACH .............................................. 3
B.5. BRIEFINGS .................................................................................................... 4
B.5.1. CREW BRIEFINGS ................................................................................. 4
B.5.2. DESCENT BRIEFING .............................................................................. 5
B.5.3. APPROACH BRIEFING ........................................................................... 5
B.6. AIRCRAFT PROCEDURES ............................................................................ 6
B.6.1. DEPARTURE .......................................................................................... 6
B.6.2. EN-ROUTE .............................................................................................. 6
B.6.3. ARRIVAL SEGMENT ............................................................................... 6
B.6.4. INTERMEDIATE APPROACH SEGMENT ............................................... 7
B.6.5. FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT ............................................................... 7
B.6.6. MISSED APPROACH SEGMENT ........................................................... 7
B.7. STABILIZED APPROACH CRITERIA ............................................................. 7
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A.BASIC & INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT TRAINING

A.1. CHANGES OF CRUISE / STRAIGHT AND LEVEL
FLIGHT
For instrumental flights, three types of cruise are established depending on the A/C or simulator:

AIRCRAFT SIM
C172 PA-28 PA-28R PA-34 ALX
LOW CRUISE 90 Kts 80 Kts 19”/2.200 rpm 19”/2.200 rpm 19”/2.200 rpm
MEDIUM CRUISE 100 kts 90 Kts 21”/2.300 rpm 21”/2.300 rpm 21”/2.300 rpm
HIGH CRUISE 110 Kts 100 Kts 25”/2.500 rpm 25”/2.500 rpm 25”/2.500 rpm

A.2. TURNS
- Altitude and airspeed must be maintained during the turn. As turning results in an effective
loss of lift, this generally requires a small compensation in the form of a slight pull of the control
column (to increase the angle of attack and therefore the lift) and a bit more of power (to
compensate the increase in drag).
- Turns in IFR must be standard (coordinated), made at a rate of 3º per second. The bank
angle for a coordinated turn varies as a function of the true airspeed. To know the bank angle for
a coordinated turn at a given airspeed, the following formula shall be applied:

(TAS / 10) + 7

- During an S maneuver, turns shall be made coordinated.

- To finish the turn at a given heading, we must start levelling the aircraft before reaching
that final heading (otherwise, we will overshoot). The number of degrees we must anticipate the
final heading is equal to 1/3 of the bank angle.
- The ICAO doc. 8168 sets a maximum bank angle for IFR flights that must be not
exceeded. This limit is 25° of bank or the bank required to maintain a coordinated turn, whichever
of the two is less.

A.2.1. COMPASS TURNS

These are turns made with exclusive reference to the direct reading compass (that is, not looking
at the directional gyro nor at the HSI). As a result, the erroneous readings that result from the
effect of the magnetic dip on the compass needle must be anticipated.

- When turning towards E/W, roll out at desired HDG.

- When turning towards the N, roll out approximately 30º before the desired heading.
- When turning towards the S, roll out approximately 30º after the desired heading.

■ Note: These guidelines are valid only for the northern hemisphere.
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A.3. CHANGES OF CRUISE WITH TURNS

In this maneuver, the student turns maintaining the altitude and, at the same time, changing the
airspeed/power settings from one type of cruise to another, at the instructor's discretion.

A.4. CLIMBS AND DESCENDS

This manoeuver involves a 1.000 ft climb or descent with a constant airspeed. The following
parameters shall be maintained:

- Constant heading.
- A rate of descent or climb of 500 fpm.
- Airspeed as aircraft requires.

With the altitude, as with the turns, we must anticipate if we want to level the aircraft at a given
altitude (otherwise, we will climb or descent through our desired altitude). The number of feet we
must anticipate the final altitude is equal to 10% the rate of climb/descent.

Alternatively, the manoeuver can be performed while turning. In that case, instead of a constant
heading, a coordinated turn shall be maintained throughout the manoeuver. When the desired
altitude is reached, the turn shall be finished, and the manoeuver will end with the aircraft in
straight and level flight.

■ Note: Before initiating the maneuver, the propeller must be adjusted to 2.500
rpm.

A.5. COORDINATION MANEUVERS

These are five types of maneuvers, referred to as S-turns, that involve a sequence of varying
climbs/descents and turns which must be performed at a constant airspeed.

S0 – Straight S.
S1 – Change turn at bottom.
S2 – Change turn at top.
S3 – Change turn at bottom and top.
S4 – Maintained turn.

Descent: 90 kt / 500 fpm

Climb: 80 kt / 500 fpm
* Consider altitude and aircraft performance.

Alt selected
- 100 ft
- 200 ft
- 300 ft
- 400 ft
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A.5.1. S0 - STRAIGHT "S"

- Adjust airspeed.
- Maintain the initial heading during the entire manoeuver.
- Reduce power as required to descend 400 ft, maintaining a rate of descent of 500
fpm and a constant airspeed.
- Increase power as required to climb 400 ft, maintaining a rate of climb of 500 fpm and
a constant airspeed. To transition from the descent to the climb:
- Anticipate 10% of the rate of descent in order to increase the power.
- The airspeed must be constant throughout the transition: simultaneously increase
the power and nose, paying close attention to the airspeed indicator.
- Reduce power as required to descend 300 ft, maintaining a rate of descent of 500
fpm and a constant airspeed.
- lncrease power as required to climb 300 ft, maintain a rate of climb of 500 fpm and a
constant! airspeed.
- Reduce power as required to descend 200 ft.
- lncrease power as required to climb 200 ft.
- Carry out the CRUISE LEVEL-OFF procedure, maintaining airspeed and heading.

NOTE: Due to the propeller's torque, rudder must be applied during climbs and descents to
assist in maintaining the heading and to gain aerodynamic efficiency. For the required amount
of pedal pressure, the student shall look at the turn coordinator.

A.5.2. S1 - CHANGE TURN AT BOTTOM

- This maneuver can be performed turning to the right/left. Adjust airspeed to normal
cruise. Reduce throttle sufficiently in order to make the aircraft descend 400 ft,
maintaining airspeed and at the same time turning the aircraft 20º to the right/left.
Once the descent is established, maintain normal cruise and a rate of descent of 500
fpm.
- Apply enough power sufficiently in advance, so that the aircraft climbs the
aforementioned 400 ft, maintaining airspeed and at the same time changing the turn
to the opposite direction. During the climb, maintain: the aforementioned airspeed,
bank angle and vertical speed indicator. Reduce throttle again sufficiently in advance
in order to make the aircraft descend 300 ft, maintaining the same parameters as in
the aforementioned leg, without changing the turn.
- Apply enough power again, sufficiently in advance to make the aircraft climb the
aforementioned 300 ft, maintaining the same parameters and at the same time,
changing the turn direction. Repeat the maneuver, descending and climbing 200 ft
and changing the turn downwards.
- At the end, carry out the CRUISE/LEVEL-OFF procedure, while maintaining airspeed
and initial altitude.

A.5.3. S2 - CHANGE TURN AT TOP

This maneuver will be performed as the S1 but changing the turn direction at the top of the
maneuver.
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A.5.4. S3 - CHANGE TURN AT BOTTOM AND TOP

This maneuver is a combined maneuver between S1 and S2. Change of turn direction will be
performed at top and bottom of the maneuver.

A.5.5. S4 - MAINTAINED TURN

During this maneuver a speed and rate of descent should be kept constant either during climb or
descent. Coordinated turn must be maintained during all the maneuver.

A.6. TIMED TURNS

- Adjust power for normal cruise speed.
- Set the proper bank angle to maintain a standard rate of turn (3° per second).

(TAS / 10) + 7

- Correct the turn recovering the initial delay of 7°/8°, which shall coincide every 15” with
45° of turn.

■ Note: In the event of a delayed turn, when reading the timer (every 15 seconds)
the pilot observes that the heading has delayed, the bank angle shall be
increased sufficiently in order to obtain at the next timer reading (a bank
angle of 30º max) the heading is put forward until the ideal position. lf this
ideal position has not been achieved yet, maintain the new bank angle
until it is obtained and thereafter, recover to the initial bank angle.

■ Note: In the event of an advanced tum, when reading the timer (every 15
seconds) the pilot observes that the heading is advanced, the bank turn
shall be decreased sufficiently, so that the heading is retarded to the ideal
position. Bank angle = 10° min.

If this ideal position has not been achieved yet, maintain the new bank
angle until it is achieved and thereafter, recover to the initial bank angle.
Timed turns will be carried out in high, medium or low cruise.

During the entire maneuver, the initial altitude and airspeed shall be
maintained.

In aircraft where it is installed, the initial heading shall be marked with the
''heading bug” (heading indicator), and shall be monitored during the
entire timed turn.
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A.7. STRAIGHT TIMED CLIMBS AND DESCENTS

- Adjust airspeed to normal cruise.

- Maintain normal cruise and 500 fpm.

- Perform a 2 min climbs and descents (1.000 ft).

- In this maneuver you must recover the initial retard, the lost or gain of altitude must
coincide with the time (125 ft every 15 seconds).

- When maneuver is finished, carry out level off procedure maintaining normal cruise, the
anticipation to level off will be 10% of the rate of climb/descent.

■ Note: In the event of a delayed descent, the vertical speed indicator rate shall
be increased and the throttle shall be adjusted sufficiently to make sure
that the corresponding altitude will be reached at the next timer reading.

■ Note: In the event of the descent being too advanced, the vertical speed
indicator rate shall be decreased and the throttle shall be sufficiently
adjusted to make sure that the corresponding altitude will be reached at
the next timer Reading.

Timed climbs and descents shall have a range of 1.000 ft and a duration
of two minutes.

During these maneuvers, the initial retarding shall be recovered while

making the variation of altitude (125 ft) coincide every 15 seconds.

During timed climbs, the airspeed shall be sacrificed for the vertical speed
indicator rate, if necessary, adjust engine/propeller to 2.500 RPM before
initiating the maneuver.

The initial heading shall be maintained during the entire maneuver.

In aircraft where it is installed, the initial heading shall be indicated with
the 'heading bug'.

A.8. SPIRALS
The spiral is a timed maneuver which is formed by a combination of a timed turn and a timed
climb or descent.

This maneuver shall be initiated with a quadratic heading (90º, 180º, 270° and 360°) and at an
altitude in round 1.000 or 500 ft (6.000, 5.500, 5.000 etc.).

Spirals can be carried out either climbing or descending and either turning to the right or to the
left.
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Airspeed normal cruise.

Switch the timer ON.

Initiate a descent or a climb, adjusting sufficient power in order to maintain airspeed and a vertical
speed indicator rate of 500 fpm. At the same time carry out a standard turn (3° per second) with
the corresponding bank turn.

Check every 15 seconds whether the initial heading passes every heading mark (the notches
situated on the exterior of the rose of the heading indicator), without any retard and the altimeter
indicates a difference of 125, 250, 375, etc. ft.

After the first minute has passed on the timer: the initial heading shall coincide with the original
heading plus 180°.

After the second minute has passed the timer: the initial heading should be in the initial heading
and the altimeter should indicate a difference of 1.000 ft with the initial altitude.

■ Remarks: If a pilot observes a delay or an advance indication during this maneuver

he should act in accordance with the same criteria mentioned in the
former maneuvers combining the use of throttle and control column in
order to correct.

■ Note: Spirals shall have a range of 1.000 ft and a duration of 2 minutes.

During climbing spirals, the airspeed shall be sacrificed for the vertical
speed indicator rate, if necessary. Therefore, engine/propeller should be
adjusted to 2.500 rpm before initiating the maneuver.

In aircraft where it is installed, the initial heading shall be indicated with

the 'heading bug'.

When flying below 5.000 ft don’t use more than 1.500 fpm on the VSI (for
descending).

A.9. PATTERN “B”

The figure 'B' consists of a series of straight timed legs, timed tums and maneuvers combined
amongst them. lt shall be performed as follows:

Adjust rpm to NORMAL CRUISE.

Initiate the maneuver with a quadratic heading (ie; 360°)

Switch the timer ON.

Maintain on the first straight leg: NORMAL CRUISE, ALTITUDE and HEADING.

After the first minute has passed, carry out a timed turn of 45º to the left. (315°)
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In the next straight leg, maintain HEADING, NORMAL CRUISE and ALTITUDE.

After one minute from the beginning of this leg, carry out a timed turn to the right of 180° in
amplitude (135°), while maintaining ALTITUDE and reducing airspeed to LOW CRUISE.
Duration of the turn: 1 minute.

Maintain during 30 sec, LOW CRUISE, ALTITUDE and HEADING.

After those 30 sec carry out a timed turned of 45° to the right. (180º).

In the next straight leg, maintain during 2 min LOW CRUISE, ALTITUDE and HEADING, after 2
minutes from the beginning of this leg, carry out a timed turn of 45° to the right (225°), while
maintaining LOW CRUISE and AL TITUDE.

In the next straight leg, maintain during 45 sec LOW CRUISE, ALTITUDE and HEADING, after
45 seconds from the beginning of this leg, carry out a timed turn of 225º to the left (360°), while
increasing airspeed to HIGH CRUISE and maintaining ALTITUDE.

In the next straight leg, maintain initial HEADING (360º), HIGH CRUISE and ALTITUDE. After
two minutes from the beginning of this leg, carry out a timed turn of 180º to the right (1809), while
reducing airspeed to NORMAL CRUISE and maintaining ALTITUDE.

In the next straight lag, maintain NORMAL CRUISE, HEADING (180°) and ALTITUDE, carry out
the APPROACH PROCEDURE, 10 seconds before the two minutes are completed, set flaps to
APPROACH position (10º). After the aforementioned time has passed, carry out a 180º and five
hundred feet descending spiral to the right maintaining a 500 fpm rate of descend and
APPROACH SPEED.

In the next straight leg, maintain ALTITUDE and HEADING while reducing airspeed to LANDING
SPEED, five seconds before the minute is completed set the LANDING GEAR DOWN, and when
the minute is completed carry out a five hundred feet descend maintaining 500 fpm rate of
descend.

Complete the LANDING CHECKLIST before reaching minimums.

Maintain minimums during 30 secs and then carry out the go around procedure to the initial
altitude (1.000 ft), during this procedure maintain AIRSPEED and HEADING.
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A.10. INTERCEPTIONS
Most of IFR flights are done within a route (Airway) designed between two radio navigational AlDS
(or station) for this reason the aircraft must follow (Track) certain routes but here comes the
problem as you can follow then INBOUND (Arriving) or OUTBOUND (Departing) the station.

HSI RMI OBI

A.10.1. TRACKING

Generally speaking, tracking is following a certain ROUTE / COURSE inbound or outbound

to/from a station in the case we are dealing with OBI, as well as HSI we should keep the CDI
centered in desired course, when dealing with RMI we should keep the needle pointing to the
desired route.

Flying OUTBOUND means the aircraft is following a RADIAL (FROM)

Flying INBOUND the aircraft is following a COURSE (TO)

NOTE: When we refer to a NDB (ADF):

Flying OUTBOUND means the aircraft is following a QDR (FROM)
Flying INBOUND the aircraft is following a QDM (TO)

Following procedures are described based on a VOR so Course/Radial is used. Even the
procedures are the same, if we refer to an NDB (ADF), QDM/QDR should be used.
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A.10.2. ARRIVALS

When proceeding inbound to a station, ATC may require you to arrive via a-different route, which
means that you have to intercept and proceed on a new inbound course.

We should consider that arriving to a station, Course and Radial are opposite.

- In arrivals we will always using inbound course (To).

- The max intercepting angle will be 90º.

For arrivals the following rule shall be applied:

D → C ± 30°

D = Desired course
C = Current course

We can determine 4 types of arrivals depending on the angle between D and C.

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A.10.2.1. When the angle between D and C is lower or equal to 15°.

For this case, the intercept HDG will be the difference between D and C multiplied by 2.

Example 1:

C
C D
D

Station
To

Intercept
HDG = 340°

D = 010° (D)esired (C)urrent

course course
C = 360°
010° 360°

The difference is 10°, 10° x 2 = 20°, so the heading to intercept is 340°.

Example 2:

D
C

* Yellow bearing is used for example.

D = 025°
C = 040°

The difference is 15°, 15° x 2 = 30°, so the heading to intercept is 070°.

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A.10.2.2. When the angle between D and C is greater than 15° and lower or
equal than 60°.

For this case 30° must be applied.

D C ± 30°

Example 1:

D = 050°
C = 360°

The difference is 50°, 050° -> 360° – 30° = 330°, so the heading to intercept is 330°.

Example 2:

D
C

* Yellow bearing is used for example.

D = 010°
C = 040°

The difference is 30°, 010° -> 040° + 30°, so the heading to intercept is 070°.
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A.10.2.3. When the angle between D and C is higher than 60° and lower than
90°.

For this case, up to a maximum of 90° from the Desired (D) must be applied.

Example 1:

D = 070°
C = 360°

The difference is 70°, 070° -> 360° – 30° = 330°, but between the Desired course and the intercept
heading is 100°, so the intercept heading is 340°.

Example 2:

D C

* Yellow bearing is used as reference.

D = 320°
C = 040°

The difference is 80°, 320° -> 040° + 30° = 070°, but between the Desired course and the intercept
heading is 110°, so the intercept heading is 050°.
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A.10.2.4. When the angle between D and C is equal to or higher than 90°. Is it
considered an OFFSET ARRIVAL.

1. Set HDG of desired radial.

2. Wait for “abeam” the station.
3. Count 1 minute.
4. Turn 90° towards the station.
5. Turn 90° to the same direction than on step 4 to intercept INBOUND.

Example 1:

D = 110°
C = 360°

The difference is 110°, 110° -> 360°.

1. Set HDG of desired radial: 290° (Desired Course 110°, Radial 290°)
2. Wait for “abeam” the station.
3. Count 1 min.
4. Turn 90° towards the station: 020°
5. Turn 90° to the same direction than on step 4 to intercept INBOUND: 110°

(D)esired course
110°

⑤
Station

④
③

② ①

(C)urrent course
360°
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A.10.3. DEPARTURES

When departing a station RADIAL and COURSE are the same thing.

- The angle of interception will be 45°.

We shall apply the following rule:

C → D ± 45°

C = Current course
D = Desired course

We can determine 3 types of arrivals depending on the angle between D and C.

A.10.3.1. When the angle between C and D is lower than 15°.

For this case, instead of 45°, you must apply the difference between C and D.

Example 1:

C
D

C = 360°
D = 010°

The difference is 10°, so the heading to intercept is 020° (C360° D010° + 10°).
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A.10.3.2. When the angle between C and D is higher than 15° or is equal to or
lower than 90°.

For this case, we use the rule CD45°.

Example 1:

C = 360°
D = 060°

The difference is 60°, so the heading to intercept is 105° (C360° D060° + 45°).
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A.10.3.3. When the angle between C and D is higher than 90°. Is it considered
an OFFSET DEPARTURE.

1. Set HDG of desired radial.

2. Wait for “abeam” the station.
3. Turn 45° towards the station.
4. Wait until intercepting the desired radial.

Example 1:

C = 360°
D = 120°

The difference is 120°, so the heading to intercept should be 165° (C360° D120° + 45°).

1. Set HDG of desired radial: 120°

2. Wait for “abeam” the station.
3. Turn 45° towards the station: 165°
4. Wait until intercepting the desired radial: 120°

(C)urrent radial
360°

①
②

Station

④
(D)esired radial
120°
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A.11. HOLDING PROCEDURES

A holding procedure is a procedure used to lose time or lose altitude. There are two types
of holding procedures:

- Standard (all turns to the right).

- Non Standard (all turns to the left).

Also the timing varies with the altitude:

- Above 14.000 ft the legs will be of 1,5 minutes.

- At or below 14.000 ft the legs will be of 1 minute.

A holding procedure can be defined over a VOR, an NDB, a VOR/DME, an interception

of two radials, or even on a radial and a distance.
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There are three ways to enter in a Holding Pattern depending where you are coming
from:

- Sector 1 Procedure: PARALLEL.

- Sector 2 Procedure: OFFSET / TEARDROP.
- Sector 3 Procedure: DIRECT.

The entry into the holding pattern shall be according to heading in relation to the three
entry sectors, recognizing a zone of flexibility of 5° on either side of the sector
boundaries.
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A.11.1. DETERMINING THE ENTRY PROCEDURE

The entry into the holding pattern shall be according to heading in relation to the three
entry sectors, recognizing a zone of flexibility of 5° on either side of the sector
boundaries.

* Standard *Non-Standard

As a reminder, the Offset entry is always in the side of the holding. Right holding (STD) Offset to the right
(70°). Left holding (Non-Std) Offset to the left (70°).

In order to determine the entry procedure, the outbound heading shall be used and check
in which sector it is.

Example 1:

Holding outbound: 030°

Using the standard image above. We are flying to the fix on HDG 360°. If the outbound
is 030°, the entry is Offset.

Using the non-standard image above. We are flying to the fix on HDG 360°. If the
outbound is 030°, the entry is Parallel.
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A.11.2. ENTRY PROCEDURES

A.11.2.1. Sector 1 (Parallel):

a) at the fix, the aircraft is turned left onto an outbound heading for the appropriate
period of time; then
b) the aircraft is turned left onto the holding side to intercept the inbound track or to
return to the fix; and then
c) on second arrival over the holding fix, the aircraft is turned right to follow the
holding pattern.

* note that right hand (standard) holding is used as example. For left hand (non standard) the turns are to the opposite.

A.11.2.2. Sector 2 (Offset/Teardrop):

* we will proceed to the station (ref.), after passing we will turn 30° away with the
inbound heading towards the inside of the Holding Pattern (teardrop radial). We will
maintain that course/radial for the appropiate period of time.
* when the time comes, we will turn to intercept the inbound course and if within 30
seconds we cannot make it we will proceed straight in to the station (once over the
station we will fly a normal Holding Pattern).

A.11.2.3. Sector 3 (Direct):

* wewill proceed to the station (ref.) after passing we will turn to outbound heading (+/·
wind drift correction) and proceed for a certain time (one minute +/· time
corrections). After that we will turn to intercept the inbound course and proceed.

■ Note: A five degrees margin at both sides of each sector is permitted in

such a way that if the heading to enter the holding procedure is
within this area you can choose the type of entrance you want to
perform (the order will be first Teardrop, then Direct and last
option, Parallel).
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A.11.2.4. TIMING WITHING THE HOLDING PATTERN

- Adjust the outbound leg in such a way that the inbound leg takes one minute to
reach the station.
- The general rule will be:

As a general rule, the outbound leg shall be adjusted by adding double of what is
remaining or by subtracting half of what is over, above the standard inbound minute.

- When entering the Holding Pattern:

- lf the angle between our desired heading and our current heading is less
than 30º, we will start counting times when passing over the station.
- lf the angle between our desired heading and our current heading is more
than 30°, we will start counting times when finishing our desired heading
and with the wings levelled.

A.11.2.5. WIND DRIFT CORRECTIONS IN THE HOLDING PATTERN.

The general rule will be:

"Correct three times the Drift Correction used inbound when flying outbound".

Sometimes the triple of the DC may be too much for a certain wind.

A.11.2.6. NOTES ABOUT HOLDING PATTERN

1. Two minutes before reaching the station, adjust the aircraft to Holding Speed.
2. All turns are to be made at a bank angle of 25 degrees or a rate of 3 degrees per
second, which ever requires the lesser bank (Doc 8168, PANS-OPS, Volume 1)
3. When inbound we should start counting time established inbound and over the
desired course (wings levelled).
4. In the event we have finished the turn to inbound inside of the Holding Pattern.
We shall start counting times once we are established with an interception angle
to inbound course.
5. In the event we have finished the turn to inbound outside of the Holding Pattern.
We shall start counting times when passing through the inbound heading.
6. When outbound we should start counting time crossing the “abeam" radial or
reaching the desired outbound heading with wings level. (Whichever is later).
7. In the event it has gone by 30 seconds and we haven't intercept the inbound
course, we shall proceed to the station straight away. (Direct to the station).
8. While doing Holding Patterns with an OBI or HSI, and after passing the station it
is important to set the CDI in the perpendicular radial so as to determine the
"abeam" and start timer.
9. When flying at MHA, we shall try to avoid entering in a parallel (as you don't have
any ground reference).
10. When entering in a holding pattern with a parallel, when turning inbound it is
recommended to bank approximately 30°. (Only for parallel entry).
11. When entering in a holding pattern via an OFFSET/TEARDROP entry, the target
is to be on the offset radial before 30" after passing the station.
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A.12. DME ARC

- Consist of a series of 10° turns towards the same side while flying the same
distance on the DME.

- The principle consists of flying perpendicular heading to the radial where you are
at the moment ± Drift Correction due to the wind.

To Enter the arc we will apply the following formula:

0,5% x GS = Nm anticipation

Example:

If the GS is 100 kt 0,5% x 100 = 0,5 nm before reaching the desired distance.

- When flying the DME are we will try to fly the perpendicular heading from 10 to
10 radials.
- In the event the distance is lower than the desired, maintain the heading to return
to the desired distance. But if the distance is higher than the desired one turn
inbound (about 10°) and wait to see the effect on the DME indicator.
- In case the 10° correction is not enough you should turn 10° more to the same
side and wait.

To leave the arc we will apply the following formula:

0.5% GS x 60/DME DISTANCE = Radials anticipation

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Example:

To leave the 10 DME arc at 120 kt 0,5% x 120 x 60/10 = 0,6 x 6 = 3,6 radials before. 4
radials will be used in practice.

A.13. POINT TO POINT NAVIGATION

The main point consists of drawing an imaginary vector towards the point which you
desire proceed (from any position determined by radial and distance of the same nav
aid).

Example 1:

Current position: R360 D20 / Desired position: R090 D10

Blue striped circle represents the longest distance, in this example is our current distance
(20 nm).

Red striped circle represents the shortest distance, in this example the distance where
we want to fly (10 nm).

Joining this two points (Green arrow) is the direction we want to fly. Using the navaid as
reference (center of the instrument, white circle) the HDG we have to follows is given by
the green lined vector. So, to fly FROM R360 D20 TO R090 D10, the heading should be
155°.
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* Consider crosswind effects while proceeding to the point and recalculate the point to
point.

Example 2:

Current position: R090 D10 / Desired position: R360 D20

HDG to fly: 340°
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B.ADVANCED IFR PROCEDURES

B.1. PROCEDURES PRIOR TO DEPARTURE
For each type of departure, it has been established a specified operational procedure
that the pilot/crew will carry out in accordance with the departure phase following a flight
profile.

B.1.1. METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS-GENERAL

The crew must check the actual met conditions at the departure aerodrome in order to
comply with Airpull operations manual, chapter C-4, meteorological minima.

B.1.2. MULTI ENGINE AIRCRAFT

The crew must check SID minimum climb gradient to ensure that the aircraft can achieve
the minimum performance for a safe departure in case of an engine failure on take-off.

This information must be obtained from the corresponding take-off climb gradient - one
engine inoperative performance chart (POH, Performance Section).

lf the minimum climb gradient with one engine inoperative is not met and the field is under
VMC, take-off is authorized.

lf the minimum climb gradient with one engine inoperative is not met and the field is under
IMC, take-off is not authorized.

B.1.3. RADIO SET-UP

The navigation equipment must be prepared prior to a departure or approach, and in

flight it must be carefully managed so as to comply with the following criteria:

1. The maximum number of navaids must be in use. lf a procedure requires the

use of 2 navaids, the 2 navaids should be set and identified from the beginning.
lf a procedure requires more navaids, the remaining navaids should be set on
standby, ready to be switched to use as soon as they become necessary.

2. NAV 1 / 2 use. NAV 2 will be used as primary navigation source and NAV 1 will
be used for approach or assist navigation.

3. No red flags must be displayed, unless this is unavoidable (because, for

instance, only a VOR is provided, without any other navaid being available for the
particular airport). This also requires caution when switching frequencies from
one equipment to another, as depending on how we proceed we may leave an
instrument without navigational data (for instance, switching the ILS frequency
from NAV2 to NAV1 will require the RMI/CDI source to be re-set prior to the
frequency change so as to avoid losing information on a needle).

4. Never fly dead reckoning (unless specified by the procedure/controller). In other

words, never lose indication on the navaids you are using to navigate.
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B.2. EN-ROUTE

B.2.1. GENERAL

Procedures developed utilizing en-route criteria assume normal aircraft operations. Any
requirements to satisfy airplane performance operating limitations must be considered
separately by the operator.

B.2.2. OBSTACLE CLEARANCE

The minimum obstacle clearance value to be applied in the primary area for the en-route
phase of a IFR flight is 600 m (1969 ft) over high terrain or in mountainous areas, and
300 m (984 ft) elsewhere. In the secondary area the obstacle clearance is reduced
linearly from the full clearance at the inner edge to zero at the outer edge.

B.2.3. STANDARD OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

B.2.3.1. POWER SETTINGS

For power settings refer to each aircraft SOP.

B.2.3.2. ALTIMETER CORRECTIONS

It is reminded that the Captain is responsible for the obstacle clearance and NOT the
ATC. (ICAO Document 8335).

The minimum en-route altitudes, TMA, and initial approach gives an obstacle clearance
of 1.000 ft.

NOTE: When establishing the minimum altitudes, altimeter errors due to changes of
wind, pressure and temperature in relation to the ISA are not taken into account.

The way of correcting those errors will be:

- OAT: Adding the 4% each 10ºC that the temperature is below the standard.
- Wind: In mountainous terrain add 500 ft each 10 kt above 30 kt, until a maximum
of 2.000 ft.

When the altimeter setting is 1.013 mb, the correction will be added 30 ft each milibar
that the QNH, is below 1.013 mb.

B.2.3.3. CHANGES OF FLIGHT LEVEL

It is recommended during the cruise to establish a maximum rate of climb or descend of

500 ft per minute, unless ATC requirements, obstacle clearance, etc.
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B.3. APPROACH

B.3.1. CATEGORIES OF AIRCRAFT

Aircraft performance differences have a direct effect on the airspace and visibility needed
to perform certain maneuvers such as circling approach, turning missed approach, and
final approach descent and maneuvering to land, including base and procedure turns.

The most significant factor in performance is speed. The following categories of typical
aircraft are established, based on 1,3 times stall speed in landing configuration at the
maximum certificated landing mass. These categories will be referred to throughout this
document by their letter designations.

Category A - less than 91 kt IAS

Category B - 91 kt or more but less than 120 kt IAS
Category C - 121 kt or more but less than 140 kt IAS
Category D - 141 kt or more but less than 165 kt IAS
Category E - 166 kt or more but less than 210 kt IAS

Airpull’s fleet have the following category:

PA-28 / C172: Category A

PA-28 R: Category A
PA-34: Category B

B.4. ARRIVALS

B.4.1. GUIDELINES TO DESCENT

The TOD will be calculated so that the aircraft reaches the MHA at the IAF.

Whenever possible, a continuous descent from the IAF to the MDA will be calculated.
On some approaches, this will not be possible, because the minima for the different
segments require different RODs, and a continuous descent from the IAF will result in a
descent below the minima. In such a case where different segments require different
RODs, the student will select the greatest ROD and will perform a continuous descent
from a point beyond the lAF.

The position of the missed approach point (MAP) must be taken into account to
determine the time available for descent on the final leg of the approach. This must be
done so that the pilot is able to safely maneuver the aircraft into a stable final descent.

For instance, it is unpractical to maintain a ROD that establishes the aircraft at the MDA
as it reaches the MAP, if the MAP is just over the threshold; in this case, although the
descent was perfectly calculated, legal and safe, the pilot cannot maneuver the aircraft
into a landing position without violating the criteria for a stabilized approach, and is
therefore forced to make a go around. For this reason, when the MAP is over, or beyond,
the threshold of the landing runway, the number of minutes on the final leg will be
reduced in order to achieve the MDA well before the MAP; in other words, the pilot will
ensure he is established at the MDA well in advance before reaching the MAP, thus
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having enough time and distance to maneuver the aircraft into a stable descent if the
runway becomes visible.

B.4.1.1. CDFA

These are non-precision approaches designed to be flown as if they were an ILS (vertical
guidance being provided by a published rate of descent rather than by a glide slope): the
chart specifies a FAF from which a certain ROD is maintained to a DA, at which a go
around is initiated if the runway is not in sight. A single approach may be defined as both
CDFA and non-CDFA, in which case, the student will have to pay close attention to
determine the following:

- Whether the CDFA approach can be flown. The student should, whenever
possible, fly the CDFA (as it is safest). However, the procedure is sometimes
designed in such a way that the CDFA approach cannot be flown if equipped only
with conventional navigation equipment.

- Whether the minima differ. If an approach is labeled both as CDFA and non-
CDFA, two different minima will generally be provided. The student must be
careful to identify which procedure will be flown, and what is the relevant minima.

B.4.2. WIND CORRECTIONS FOR APPROACH

lf a non-precision approach is to be flown under wind conditions, the different legs of the
approach must be corrected for wind. For this, we will take as a reference the holding
inbound time used for correcting outbound.

lf the approach is a procedure or base turn:

- For the outbound leg after the FAF, the correction applied will be ± ½ reference
time per minute.

- For the leg between the station and the MAP, the correction applied will be ± ¼
reference time per minute.

lf the approach is a racetrack:

- The first minute outbound will be flown as in the holding.

- The remainder will be corrected with ± ⅓ reference time per minute.
- For the leg between the station and the MAP, the correction applied will be ± ¼
reference time per minute.

For example: if an aircraft holding over a station spends 50 seconds inbound, it will spend
1 minute and 20 seconds outbound (10 seconds remaining inbound, multiplied by two
and added to the minute outbound). To correct the different legs of the approach, the
reference time will be 10 seconds. With an outbound of 3 minutes, and 2 minutes
between the station and the MAP, the corrections for the following approach will be:
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B.5. BRIEFINGS
Briefings for taxi, departure (SlD), arrival (STAR) and approach (ILS, VOR, etc) will be
given on every flight regardless of how familiarized we are with the airport, the taxiway
layout, the different approaches, etc.

- Briefings are a necessary safety feature of every flight, by which the pilots
increase their situational awareness, ensure compliance with standard
operational procedures, prepare for both the expected and the unexpected and
in general increase the safety of the flight.
- It is imperative the briefings be conducted before the appropriate leg of each flight
(that is, the taxi will not be initiated before the taxi briefing has been completed,
we will not declare ready for departure without the normal and emergency briefing
being completed, etc).
- We should not rush through the briefing; it must be conducted calmly and in an
orderly manner to ensure both crew understand and agree on the procedure that
will be flown. lf any disagreement arises, it must be dealt with and solved before
proceeding further.

B.5.1. CREW BRIEFINGS

The last item of the engine run-up procedure will be the crew briefing, in which the SID
will be reviewed. The PIC will cover the following points in the order indicated below:

1. Aerodrome name.
2. Approach plate and date.
3. Name of SID/RWY in use.
4. Take-off/Routing.
5. Radio aids selection.
6. Departure restrictions (gradients, altitudes, speed).
7. MSA.
8. Contingency procedures n-1 (PA34).

The first three steps are very important as they allow both pilots to ensure they have the
latest usable chart and therefore that no disagreements will occur while flying the
procedure. The SID and RWY must both be clearly identified as it is sometimes very
easy to mistake one departure for another.
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After the route has been reviewed and understood, the pilot should check that the
navaids are set on both radios, in a manner that ensures that all the instruments are
showing relevant information. How the navaids will be changed and identified on the air
is something that must be anticipated and thought of while on the ground, as some
complex departures will require the use of several navaids and therefore that changes
be made to the navigation equipment while flying. An incorrect setting of the radios may
lead to instruments not displaying necessary information and, as a result, to deviations
from the specified route, airspace violations, etc.

Departure restrictions (specifically climb gradients) should always be checked against

the POH to ensure we can comply with the departure. On the PA34, we should also
check the one-engine climb gradient, to know whether we can comply or not in case of
an engine failure. We must also be conscious of the MSA along our route, to be prepared
in case a contingency should require that we deviate from the published route.

Every departure briefing on the PA34 must include a review of what to do if an engine
fails. There is not a single way of dealing with an engine failure, as circumstances such
as weather, geography and airport surroundings, SID design, etc., play a vital role in
determining what we can or cannot do. As a general rule, we will always consider
whether we have VMC or IMC; in case of VMC, we may prefer to proceed visually to the
airfield; in case of IMC, we may consider continuing with the SID, deviating from a
departure we can no longer comply with (in favor of a low MSA), requesting a direct to
an IAF, etc. Regardless of what we choose, the following criteria should always apply:
first, the airplane must be flown and controlled; second, we must navigate (find
ourselves, decide where and how to proceed); third, we declare emergency and state
our intentions (in short: fly, navigate, communicate).

B.5.2. DESCENT BRIEFING

The descent briefing must be completed before reaching the TOD. The following points
must be discussed, and in this order:

1. STAR if available; if not, radial and MSA to the IAF will be checked. For the STAR,
the following items shall be briefed: airport name and country, approach plate
date and identifier, name of the SID to be flown, and a short description of the
route to follow and altitude minima to comply with.
2. Expected approach.
3. Transition level. As ATC may change it depending on the aerodrome pressure,
the item will be reviewed to ensure the QNH is set where appropriate.
4. MEA/MSA/TAA for our arrival. This will be generally consulted on the expected
approach plate.
5. Weather conditions: ceiling and visibility above minima (checking weather
conditions and equipment available allow for a straight-in or circling approach).
6. TOD check and minimum holding altitude. The TOD distance to the relevant
navaid will be specified.
7. Fuel remaining and alternate airports. We will check that the remaining fuel
quantity is sufficient for a deviation to our suitable alternate airports.

B.5.3. APPROACH BRIEFING

The approach briefing must be completed before reaching the IAF. The following points
must be discussed, and in this order:
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1. Approach plate and date. The chart must be identified to ensure both crew have
the latest, up to date chart.
2. Airport elevation. With this, we will know below which altitude the 'stabilized
approach' criteria must be complied with.
3. Navaids selection. This requires setting up the in use and standby frequencies,
on both NAV1 and 2 equipment, in such a way that all the instruments display
relevant information, as so that frequency changes during the approach are
anticipated and prepared, thereby reducing the workload.
4. Approach procedure. The holding and the approach will be reviewed in
sequence, starting from the holding/lAF, progressing to the IF and FAF, first
focusing on the horizontal view, then on the vertical view.
a. Horizontal view:
i. The holding radial and type of entry will be identified.
ii. The IAF, IF and FAF will be identified by stating the distance from
the relevant navaid and inbound course. The final course must be
clearly stated.
b. Vertical profile view:
i. The minimum altitudes for each point (IAF, IF, FAF) will be stated.
ii. The glide slope checks will be stated (by specifying distance and
altitude).
iii. A continuous ROD will be calculated.
5. MDA/DA. The straight-in or circling minima will be stated.
6. Missed approach procedure.

B.6. AIRCRAFT PROCEDURES

B.6.1. DEPARTURE

The aircraft's configuration and airspeeds will be set according with the airplane SOP.

B.6.2. EN-ROUTE

The standard cruise power setting, according to the airplane SOP.

B.6.3. ARRIVAL SEGMENT

B.6.3.1. TOD DETERMINATION

1. For Distance: Difference of levels/altitude divided by 1.000 times 3. (i.e. cruising

FL070, IAF 3.500 ft. Altitude difference is (7.000 - 3.500) 3.500, 3.5 x 3 = 10,5
NM before IAF).
2. For ROD (std 3.0° descent). Half of the GS times 10. (i.e. GS = 100kt. 100/2 = 50
x 10 = 500 ft/min).

B.6.3.2. OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES DURING THE ARRIVAL SEGMENT

1. Before reaching the IAF the approach briefing must be completed.

2. 2 min before IAF the reduction from descent speed to APP speed must be carried
out in order to have over IAF the APP speed.
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B.6.4. INTERMEDIATE APPROACH SEGMENT

B.6.4.1. OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES INITIAL APPROACH SEGMENT

B.6.4.1.1. 2D APPROACH

1. 1.5 nm before reaching the FAF select flap 1.

2. 1.0 nm before reaching the FAF landing gear down (if available), landing light on,
reduce speed.

B.6.4.1.2. 3D APPROACH

1. As the aircraft intercept the glideslope and reaching 1 dot and a half select flap
1.
2. Reaching 1 dot landing gear down (if available), landing light on, reduce speed.

B.6.5. FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT

B.6.5.1. OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT

B.6.5.1.1. 2D APPROACH

- 1.000 ft above airport elevation approach must be stabilized.

- 500 ft above airport elevation final approach items must be performed.

B.6.5.1.1. 3D APPROACH

- 1.000 ft above airport elevation approach must be stabilized.

- 500 ft above airport elevation final approach items must be performed.

B.6.6. MISSED APPROACH SEGMENT

B.6.6.1. OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES MISSED APPROACH SEGMENT

- The missed approach will be performed according to the aircraft SOP.

B.7. STABILIZED APPROACH CRITERIA

The aircraft is said to be flying a stabilized approach when the following criteria are met:

- Landing gear down and locked (three green lights).

- Flaps selected for landing (with full flap set on final).
- Landing procedure and checklist completed (after the FAF or FAP, or on final
if in a visual traffic pattern).
- Power setting is the appropriate for the aircraft configuration and is above idle
power.
- Bank angle not more than 10º.
- The aircraft speed is not more than VREF + 10 KlAS corrected by wind, and not
less than VREF.
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- Rate of descent is no greater than 1.000 fpm. lf an approach requires a sink rate
greater than 1.000 fpm, a special briefing should be conducted.
- Precision approaches:
• LOC deviation should not be greater than 1 dot of scale.
• GS deviation should not be greater than 1 dot of scale.
- Non-precision approaches:
• NDB: bearing deviation should not be greater than +/- 5º.
• VOR: bearing deviation should not be greater than +/- 5º.
- Visual approaches: the aircraft will be aligned with the runway and in the correct
vertical path according to the PAPI indicator or similar.

All flights must be stabilized:

- IMC: at 1.000 ft AAL (Above Aerodrome Level).

- VMC: at 300 ft AAL.
- Circling: at 300 ft AAL.

An approach that becomes unstabilized below 1.000 ft or 300 ft AAL requires an

immediate go-around.

Aerodrome conditions should be included in the descent briefing in order to

establish the altitude AAL at which the aircraft should be stabilized.