EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

CHAPTER ONE

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

INTRODUCTION

As illustrated in the following diagram, an electromechanical system consists of an electrical

subsystem (electric circuits such as windings), a magnetic subsystem (magnetic field in the
magnetic cores and airgaps), and a mechanical subsystem (mechanically movable parts such as a
plunger in a linear actuator and a rotor in a rotating electrical machine). Voltages and currents
are used to describe the state of the electrical subsystem and they are governed by the basic
circuital laws: Ohm's law, KCL and KVL. The state of the mechanical subsystem can be
described in terms of positions, velocities, and accelerations, and is governed by the Newton's
laws. The magnetic subsystem or magnetic field fits between the electrical and mechanical
subsystems and acting as a "ferry" in energy transform and conversion. The field quantities such
as magnetic flux, flux density, and field strength, are governed by the Maxwell's equations.
When coupled with an electric circuit, the magnetic flux interacting with the current in the circuit
would produce a force or torque on a mechanically movable part. On the other hand, the
movement of the moving part will could variation of the magnetic flux linking the electric circuit
and induce an electromotive force (emf) in the circuit. The product of the torque and speed (the

mechanical power) equals the active component of the product of the emf and current. Therefore,
the electrical energy and the mechanical energy are inter-converted via the magnetic field.

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CATUC 2024/2025 LECTURER: Mr. NDANSAK
EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

1.1 ENERGY BALANCE

According to the principle of conservation of energy, "energy cannot be created or destroyed but
it can be transformed from one form to another". The process of energy transformation is
reversible but there are certain losses due to practical devices. Hence in energy conversion
process the entire energy cannot be transformed from one form to another. The loss in the
process is called energy loss. In addition to the loss, some part of energy gets stored in the
medium like magnetic field. This is called energy stored. There exists a perfect energy balance in
the process of electromechanical energy conversion. Thus the input energy has three parts,
transformed energy, energy loss and stored energy. The energy loss gets converted to heat energy
in the electromechanical devices. Thus the energy balance equation for generating and motoring
actions can be written as,

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CATUC 2024/2025 LECTURER: Mr. NDANSAK
EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

In these energy balance equations, the transformed energy terms are always positive but change
in energy stored may be positive or negative. If energy stored increases, it is positive while if it
decreases it is negative. The energy dissipated in the form of heat.

Energy Flow in Electromechanical Energy Conversion Device

For any electromechanical energy conversion, there are two systems, electrical system and
mechanical system. These systems are coupled through a coupling field which is mostly a
magnetic one.

Now for a generator, the input is mechanical energy but the entire input does not reach the
coupling field for the conversion. Part of it gets lost in the form of friction and windage losses.
The available mechanical input is converted to electrical by the device via coupling field. But net
output can not be equal converted electrical energy some part of it gets lost in the form of
electrical losses such as copper (I²R) losses and core or iron losses. Figure 1.1 shows the energy
flow diagram of electromechanical energy conversion device working as a generator.

Figure 1.1: Energy flow in an electromechanical device (generator)

1.2 Electromechanical-Energy-Conversion Principles

The electromechanical-energy-conversion process takes place through the medium of the electric
or magnetic field of the conversion device of which the structures depend on their respective
functions. In general, electromechanical energy conversion devices can be divided into three
categories:

1. Transducers (for measurement and control)

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CATUC 2024/2025 LECTURER: Mr. NDANSAK
EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

These devices transform the signals of different forms. Examples are microphones, pickups, and
speakers.

2. Force producing devices (linear motion devices)

These type of devices produce forces mostly for linear motion drives, such asrelays, solenoids
(linear actuators), and electromagnets.

3. Continuous energy conversion equipment

These devices operate in rotating mode. A device would be known as a generator if it convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy, or as a motor if it does the other way around (from
electrical to mechanical)

1.3 Forces and Torques in Magnetic Field Systems.

The Lorentz Force Law gives the force F on a particle of charge q in the presence of electric and
magnetic fields.

F= q(E+v×B)

Where, F : newtons, q: coulombs, E: volts/meter, B : telsas, v: meters/second

 In a pure electric-field system,

F = qE

 In pure magnetic-field systems,

F = q(v×B)

To visually determine the direction in which the force acts, we use the right hand rule.

The right hand rule states that: to determine the direction of the magnetic force on a positive
moving charge, point your right thumb in the direction of the velocity (v), your index finger in
the direction of the magnetic field (B), and your middle finger will point in the direction of the
the resulting magnetic force (F). Negative charges will be affected by a force in the opposite
direction

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CATUC 2024/2025 LECTURER: Mr. NDANSAK
EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

Figure 1.2: The right hand rule

 For situations where large numbers of charged particles are in motion,

Fᵥ = ρ(E+v×B)

J = ρv
Fᵥ =J×B (for the magnetic field)

ρ (charge density): coulombs/m3, Fv (force density): newtons/m3, J = ρv (current density):

amperes/m2

Most electromechanical-energy-conversion devices are made of rigid structures containing

magnetic material, where forces act directly on the material, impacting the performance of the
device in terms of net force or torque on the moving component. The performance of these
devices is usually determined by the alignment of magnetic fields associated with the rotor and
stator of rotating machinery, with torque linked to their deviation from alignment. In a motor, the
stator magnetic field rotates ahead of the rotor's, exerting a pulling force and performing work,
while in a generator, the rotor does the work on the stator.

1.4 Energy stored in magnetic field

Consider the magnetic field based electromechanical energy conversion device having the
following characteristics;
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EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

 A lossless magnetic-energy-storage system with two terminals

 The electric terminal has two terminal variables: e (voltage), i (current).

 The mechanical terminal has two terminal variables: ffld (force), x (position)

 The loss mechanism is separated from the energy-storage mechanism.

The energy losses associated with this system are

 Electrical losses: ohmic losses

 Mechanical losses: friction, windage

Figure : Schematic diagram of magnetic electromechanical energy conversion

1.4.1 A Singly Excited Linear Actuator

Consider a singly excited linear actuator as shown below. The winding resistance is R. At
a certain time instant t, we record that the terminal voltage applied to the excitation winding is v,
the excitation winding current i, the position of the movable plunger x, and the force acting on
the plunger F with the reference direction chosen in the positive direction of the x axis, as shown
in the diagram. After a time interval dt, we notice that the plunger has moved for a distance dx
under the action of the force F.

Figure : simple force producing device

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EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

The mechanical done by the force acting on the plunger during this time interval is thus

The total power fed into the excitation winding is given by

where  is the flux linkage given by Li

(N=number of coil turns, flux, L=coil inductance, i=current)

Energy balance

For motor action, the energy transfer can be accounted as

For a lossless magnetic energy storage system, total enerty loss is neglected,

For a magnetically linear (with a constant permeability or a straight line magnetization

curve such that the inductance of the coil is independent of the excitation current)
system, the above expression can be reduced to

This expression of work gives the force acting on the plunger as

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CATUC 2024/2025 LECTURER: Mr. NDANSAK
EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

Remark

 The inductance is given by , where

 Reluctance is the pposition offered to the magnetic flux by a magnetic circuit. It depends upon length (l),
area of cross-section (A) and permeability (μ=μ0μr) of the material that makes up the magnetic circuit. It is

measured in AT/Wb .

 Magnetomotive force (mmf): This is the work done in moving a unit magnetic pole (1 Wb) once round the
magnetic circuit.

 Flux,

1.4.2 Singly Excited Rotating Actuator

The singly excited linear actuator mentioned above becomes a singly excited rotating actuator if
the linearly movable plunger is replaced by a rotor, as illustrated in the diagram on the right hand
side. Through a derivation similar to that for a singly excited linear actuator, one can readily
obtain that the torque acting on the rotor

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CATUC 2024/2025 LECTURER: Mr. NDANSAK
EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

Example:
1. Calculate the force acting on the plunger of a linear actuator shown below

2. The magnetic frame shown in Fig. 1.17 is built-up of iron of square cross-section, 3 cm side.
Each air gap is 2 mm wide. Each of the coil is wound with 1000 turns and the exciting current is
1·0 A. The relative permeability of part A and part B may be taken as 1000 and 1200
respectively. Calculate,

(i) reluctance of part A;

(ii) reluctance of part B;

(iii) reluctance of two air gaps;

(iv) total reluctance of the complete magnetic circuit;

(v) mmf produced and

(vi) flux set-up in the circuit.

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EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

3. In the following system if the air‐gap flux density is 1 T and air‐gap length is constant
and fringing effect is neglected, calculate:
a) The DC source voltage;
b) Stored magnetic energy

4. A coil of insulated wire of 500 turns and of resistance 4 is closely wound on iron ring.
The ring has a mean diameter of 0.25 m and a uniform cross-sectional area of 700 mm2.
Calculate the total flux in the ring and magnetic field generated when a DC supply of 6V
is applied to the ends of the winding. Assume a relative permeability of 550

5. A coil of 1000 turns is wound on a laminated core of steel having a cross-section of 5cm2.
The core has an air gap of 2 mm cut at right angle. What value of current is required to
have an air gap flux density of 0·5 T? Permeability of steel may be taken as infinity.
Determine the coil inductance.

6. In an electromechanical system ( ) for and . Calculate

the force exerted on the movable part if the current is 3 A and air‐gap length is 5 cm.

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CATUC 2024/2025 LECTURER: Mr. NDANSAK
EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

7. In the following system assume flux is constant during the movement, calculate the
average force.

1.4.3 A Doubly Excited Rotating Actuator

This is a system in which two separate sources of excitation are provided to produce the
magnetic field of the system. Consider a doubly excited rotating actuator shown schematically in
the diagram below as an example.

The differential energy function can be derived as follows:

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CATUC 2024/2025 LECTURER: Mr. NDANSAK
EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

Where

and

Hence,

For magnetically linear systems, currents and flux linkages can be related by constant
inductances as following

( ) [ ]( )

| |

Let , and

The magnetic energy can then be expressed as

Therefore, the torque acting on the rotor can be calculated as

EXAMPLES

1. In the system shown in Fig. below, the inductances in henrys are given as
, , . Find the torque in the stator for

current il=0.8 A and i2 = 0.01 A.

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EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

2. Find an expression for the torque of a symmetrical two-winding system whose

inductances vary as and , for the
condition that

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CATUC 2024/2025 LECTURER: Mr. NDANSAK
EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

1 CHAPTER TWO

2 TRANSFORMERS
INTRODUCTION

The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another
electrical circuit. The two circuits may be operating at different voltage levels but always work at
the same frequency. Basically, a transformer is an electro-magnetic energy conversion device. It
is commonly used in electrical power system and distribution systems. It can change the
magnitude of alternating voltage or current from one value to another. This useful property of the
transformer is mainly responsible for the widespread use of alternating currents rather than direct
currents. i.e electric power generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating
current rather than direct current. Transformers have no moving parts, rugged and durable in
construction, thus requiring very little attention. They also have a very high efficiency as high as
99%.

2.1 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

A single phase transformer is a static device or equipment used either for raising or lowering the
voltage of an a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It essentially
consists of two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated magnetic
core as shown in Fig 2.1. The winding connected to the a.c. source is called primary winding (or
primary) and the one connected to load is called secondary winding (or secondary). The
alternating voltage V1 whose magnitude is to be changed is applied to the primary.

Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1) and secondary (N2), an alternating e.m.f.
E2 is induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary causes a secondary
current I2. Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will appear across the load.

If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer.

If V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.

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EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

Fig. 2.1 Schematic diagram of single phase transformer

2.1.1 Constructional Details

Depending upon the manner in which the primary and secondary windings are placed on the core,
and the shape of the core, there are two types of transformers, called (a) core type, and (b) shell
type.

In core type transformers, the windings are placed in the form of concentric cylindrical coils
placed around the vertical limbs of the core. The low-voltage (LV) as well as the high-voltage
(HV) winding are made in two halves, and placed on the two limbs of core. The LV winding is
placed next to the core for economy in insulation cost. Figure 2.2(a) shows the cross-section of
the arrangement.

In the shell type transformer, the primary and secondary windings are wound over the central
limb of a three-limb core as shown in Figure 2.2(b). The HV and LV windings are split into a
number of sections, and the sections are interleaved or sandwiched i.e. the sections of the HV
and LV windings are placed alternately.

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EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

Fig: 2.2 Core type & shell type transformer

Core
The core is built-up of thin steel laminations insulated from each other. This helps in reducing
the eddy current losses in the core, and also helps in construction of the transformer. The steel
used for core is of high silicon content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability
and low hysteresis loss. The material commonly used for core is CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain
Oriented) steel. Conductor material used for windings is mostly copper. However, for small
distribution transformer aluminium is also sometimes used. The conductors, core and whole
windings are insulated using various insulating materials depending upon the voltage.

Insulating Oil

In oil-immersed transformer, the iron core together with windings is immersed in insulating oil.
The insulating oil provides better insulation, protects insulation from moisture and transfers the
heat produced in core and windings to the atmosphere. The transformer oil should possess the
following qualities:

a) High dielectric strength,

b) Low viscosity and high purity,
c) High flash point, and
d) Free from sludge.

Transformer oil is generally a mineral oil obtained by fractional distillation of crude oil.

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EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

Tank and Conservator

The transformer tank contains core wound with windings and the insulating oil. In large
transformers small expansion tank is also connected with main tank is known as conservator.
Conservator provides space when insulating oil expands due to heating. The transformer tank is
provided with tubes on the outside, to permits circulation of oil, which aides in cooling. Some
additional devices like breather and Buchholz relay are connected with main tank. Buchholz
relay is placed between main tank and conservator. It protects the transformer under extreme
heating of transformer winding. Breather protects the insulating oil from moisture when the cool
transformer sucks air inside. The silica gel filled breather absorbs moisture when air enters the
tank. Some other necessary parts are connected with main tank like, Bushings, Cable Boxes,
Temperature gauge, Oil gauge, Tappings, etc.

2.1.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux ϕ is set up in the
core. This alternating flux links both windings and induces e.m.f.s E1 and E2 in them according
to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. E1 is termed as primary e.m.f. and
e.m.f. E2 is termed as secondary e.m.f.

and

Note that magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and
primary respectively.

If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up transformer. If N2 < N1, then E2 < E1
(or V2< V1) and we get a step-down transformer.

If load is connected across the secondary winding, the secondary e.m.f. E2 will cause a current I2
to flow through the load. Thus, a transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one circuit to
another with a change in voltage level.

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EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

Remarks

a) The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.

b) There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.
c) The a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
d) There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same frequency as the input
power.
e) The losses that occur in a transformer are:
 core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
 copper losses—in the resistance of the windings

In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the input primary
power. In other words, a transformer has very high efficiency.

Turn Ratio:

It is defined as the ratio of primary to secondary turns.

 If N2 > N1 the transformer is called Step up transformer

 If N2 < N1 the transformer is called Step down transformer
 If N2=N1 the transformer is called an Isolation transformer

Transformation Ratio:

The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary voltage. It is
denoted by K.

As (E2 ∞ N2 and E1 ∞ N1)

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EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

2.1.3 IDEAL TRANSFORMER:

Definition: The transformer which is free from all types of losses is known as an ideal
transformer. It is an imaginary transformer which has no core loss, no ohmic resistance and no
leakage flux. The ideal transformer has the following important characteristic.

1. The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes zero.

2. The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The infinite permeable means
less magnetising current requires for magnetising their core.
3. The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole of the flux induces in
the core of the transformer links with their primary and secondary winding.
4. The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the transformer is free from
hysteresis and eddy current loss.

The above mention properties are not possible in the practical transformer. In an ideal
transformer, there is no power loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input power.

Since El ∞ N2 and E1 ∞ N1, also E1 is similar to V1 and E2 is similar to V2

Therefore, transformation ratio will be given by the equation shown below

The primary and the secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.

Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer:

The phasor diagram of the ideal transformer is shown in the figure below. As the coil of the
primary transformer is purely inductive the magnetising current induces in the transformer lag
90º by the input voltage V1. The E1 and E2 are the emf induced in the primary and secondary
winding of the transformer. The direction of the induces emf inversely proportional to the
applied voltage

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EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

Fig 2.3: Phasor diagram of an ideal transformer

2.1.4 E.M.F. EQUATION OF A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary as shown in
Fig.2.4.

Fig.2.4: Variation of flux in supplied voltage

As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from + ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f
seconds.

The sinusoidal flux ϕ produced by the primary can be represented as:

When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage V1, it is circulating alternating
current, producing an alternating flux ϕ

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EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

 ϕ – Flux
 ϕm - maximum value of flux
 N1 - Number of primary turns
 N2 - Number of secondary turns
 f - Frequency of the supply voltage
 E1 - R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f
 E2 - R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.f

From Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

Where Ψ = N1ϕ

So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

Maximum valve of emf

Root mean square RMS value is

√
√

Similarly,

√
√

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EEE 2203: Electrical Machines

2.1.5 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER WITH RESISTANCE AND

LEAKAGE REACTANCE
In the following figure, leakage reactance and resistance of the primary winding as well as
secondary winding are taken out, representing a practical transformer.

Fig; Practical Transformer with Resistance And Leakage Reactance

Where,

R1 and R2 = resistance of primary and secondary winding respectively

X1 and X2 = leakage reactance of primary and secondary winding resp.
Z1 and Z2 = Primary impedance and secondary impedance resp.

Z1 = R1 + jX1 ...and Z2 = R2 + jX 2

The impedance in each winding lead to some voltage drop in each winding. Considering this
voltage drop the voltage equation of transformer can be given as –

V1 = E1 + I1(R1 + jX1 )-------- primary side

V2 = E2 - I2(R2 + jX2 )-------- secondary side

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