ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

Prior the Faraday discovery in 1831, a voltage was generated in a

circuit by means of chemical action such as that which occurs in a
dry cell or storage battery.

Michael Faraday 1831

Ampere ve Bio’Savart
Mechanical
Relation between elec. and
Energy mech. energies Electrical
investigations related to electric, Energy
mechanic and magnetic field

Besides that the Faraday’s discovery the first linking of the possibility of
interchange between mechanical and electrical energy, with the other
investigations related to electric, mechanic and magnetic field which were
done by the other scientist like as Ampere and Bio’Savart, the electric
energy has been started to obtain by means of the mechanical energy.
1
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

 The results of these investigations have given the birth to

- the electric generator and motor,

- Transducer, and actuators
- the microphone,
- Relays
- the loudspeaker,
- the transformer, the galvanometer,
- Computer hard drives
- the other similar devices

2
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

Electromechanical System
The system with electrical port or ports on one side; and
mechanical port or ports on the other side in which its electrical
and mechanical parts interact to each other is defined as
electromechanical system.

Electromechanical
Electrical port System Mechanical Port

3
 Consept of Electromechanical System Modelling

Electromechanical System

Electrical System Electric / Magnetic System Mechanical System

Electric /Magnetic Flux, Position, Speed

Voltage and Current Flux Density and field Acceleration
Strenth

Circuit Equations obtained

Induce Force or Torque Force/Torque
by
Equations obtained
Kirchoff
by
Voltage, Current and Ohm
Induced emf Newtons Laws and
Laws
D’Alembert principle

4
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

Rotation

Electromechanical Continous energy conversion

equipment (Motor and Generator)
System

Translation

1. Transducers (for measurement and control )

operate under linear output conditions and
relatively small signals
microphones, pickup and speakers
2. Force producing devices
realys, selonodis (linear actuators), and
electromagnets

5
Fn

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

REFERENCES SIGNS
MOTOR, GENERATOR and TRANSFORMER
For a definite time, since the electrical and mechanical energies are
proportional to the electrical and mechanical powers the below expressions
can be defined;

Electrical power pelc = v i

Mechanical power for the rotational motion pmec = T w

Mechanical power for translational motion pmec = F n

6
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

REFERENCES SIGNS
MOTOR, GENERATOR and TRANSFORMER

 v i = electrical power at the electrical port, expressed in [Watt]

 Tw = mechanical power at the mechanical port, expressed in [Watt]

 v = the voltage at the electrical port, expressed in [V]

 i = the current at the electrical port, expressed in [A]

 T= mechanical torque at the mechanical port, expressed in [N-m]

 w = angular velocity at the mechanical port, expressed in [rad/s]

 n = velocity at the mechanical port, expressed in [m velocity at the mechanical
port, expressed in [rad/s] /s]

7
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

REFERENCES SIGNS
MOTOR, GENERATOR and TRANSFORMER

It is necessary to use the references signs in the electrical and mathematical

models of the electromechanical systems as in used electrical circuit
and system theory.

 The plus sign + The positive reference for the VOLTAGE

 An arrow which is directed from outside to the inside
the positive reference for the CURRENT
 An arrow which is directed from outside to the inside the
positive reference for the SPEED or ANGULAR VELOCITY
 the arrow or like positive voltage reference the plus sign +
for the positive reference for the TORQUE and Force

8
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

REFERENCES SIGNS
MOTOR, GENERATOR and TRANSFORMER
According these references sign,

 when pelc = v i>0 or pmec= T w >0 the input power

pmec= F v >0

(In this case electromechanical system is take the energy from the another external system)

 When pelc = v i<0 or pmec= T w <0 the output power

pmec= F v <0

(in this case electromechanical system is deliver the energy to the another external system)

 In the rotational motion, the energy may be applied by way of the rotating of the shaft.

 In the translational motion is provided by application of the force to the moveable part of the
system.

9
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

REFERENCES SIGNS
MOTOR, GENERATOR and TRANSFORMER
Generators are the electromechanical systems that are converting the mechanical
energy taken from mechanical ports into electrical energy by making a rotational
or translational motion

Generator pmec = T w > 0 and Pelc = vi < 0

+vel2
ielc.2
ielc.1 w Te
+vel1
Electrical Energy Electromechanical
System Mechanical Energy

10
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

REFERENCES SIGNS
MOTOR, GENERATOR and TRANSFORMER

Motors are the electromechanical systems that are converting the electrical
energy taken from electrical ports into mechanical energy by making a
+v
rotational el2
or translational motion

Motor pelc = vi > 0 and pmec = T w < 0

ielc.2
ielc.1 Te w
vel1 +
Electrical Energy Electromechanical Mechanical Energy
System

11
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

REFERENCES SIGNS
MOTOR, GENERATOR and TRANSFORMER

Transformers are the electromagnetic system that are convert the electric
energy at one voltage and current level to electric energy at another
voltage and current level by making without any rotational or
translational motion

Transformer P1elc = v1i1 > 0 and P2elc =v2i2 < 0

ielc.1 ielc.2
+vel1 +vel2
Electrmagnetic
System
Electrical Energy Electrical Energy

12
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION
MAGNETIC FIELDS

 Magnetic fields are fundamental mechanism for electromechanical energy

conversion and electromagnetic energy conversion.

 Motors, generators, transformers and the other electromechanical and

electromagnetic systems operate on the principle of the magnetic field.

 The area around a magnet or coil carrying electric current is called as magnetic
field, and it is in this area that the effects of the magnetic force

 Magnetic field may be produced in one of three ways:

• By electric currents
• By permanent magnets
• By a changing electric field

 The last of these is only of importance when the electric fields are changing very
rapidly. Such situations do not normally arise in electromagnetic energy
conversion devices and this effect may be neglected here.
. 13
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

MAGNETIC FIELDS

 The magnetic field is a vector field, and direction of the field at any
point is defined to be the direction assumed by the axis of a magnetic
dipole suspended at that point.

 It is convenient to represent the direction of the field vector by “lines of

force” (also called “flux lines”) which are lines that at any point they
indicate the direction of the field.

14
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

MAGNETIC FLUX

 Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or number of lines of

force) produced by a magnetic source

 Magnetic flux is given the symbol f.

 The SI unit of flux is the weber, unit symbol [Wb].

 the flux is the integration of a field vector quantity such as B

over an area yields a quantity called flux.

15
 MAGNETIC FLUX

Mathematically magnetic flux is the integration of a field vector quantity

such as B over an area yields a quantity called flux.

 
 f= Bd A right-side of this equation is a surface integral of the
S

scaler product of magnetic induction and area taken over any surface
of bounded by the path or

loop.

B
dA

dA
 
 d A is a vector normal to the elementary area dA, and B represents the
magnitude and  direction of magnetic induction through the elementary area dA
Thus when B is perpendicular to the surface, from this equation,

 f= B A from which B = f/A

16
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

MAGNETIC INDUCTION (Magnetic Flux Density)

 The basic Magnetic field quantity is the magnetic induction (Magnetic flux
density), which is given the symbol B.

 It is defined as the flux per unit area through an element normal to the
direction of flux.

 The SI unit of induction is the tesla; unit designation [T] or webers per square
meters; [W/m2].

17
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION)

MAGNETIC INDUCTION (Magnetic Flux Density)

 Oersted discovered that a current – carrying conductor has a

magnetic field associated with it, and that the direction of the
magnetic induction is tangential to a circle centered on the
conductor and lying in a plane normal to its centre line.
 This fact is illustrated in the below Fig., where the X on the
cross section of the conductor indicates that the current is
flowing into the plane of the diagram.

B


B
X
18
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION
MAGNETIC INDUCTION (Magnetic Flux Density)

 The relationship between the direction of i and that of B is expressed by the

right-hand rule, which says that if a right-hand screw is turned to give a motion in
the direction of the current, then the direction in which it is turned is that of B
 .

19
MAGNETIC INDUCTION (Magnetic Flux Density)

If a closed loop of conductor lying in a plane carries a current,

then a magnetic field is induced which may be illustrated by lines
of induction  
B N B

S
Imagine a current-carrying conductor held in the right hand with the the fingers
pointing in the direction of current flow; thumb finger then point in the direction of
the magnetic field created by that current.

20
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY

 In discussing the current and flux density production of magnetic fields by

means of electric currents, it is convenient to consider that a physical property
exits which is intermediate between current and flux density.

This property is the magnetic field intensity H.

21
 MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY

 The flux density B established at any point depends on the medium and on
the value of H at that point.

 The relationship is given by

  
B = or H =  H
where
  o = permeabilty of free space in webers per meter-ampere or henry
per meter

 Its value is 4p *10-7 [Wb/(Amper-turn meter) or Henry per meter-H/m].

 r=  / o = relative permeabilty of the medium in the system under

consideration,
Typical values of its range from 2000 to 80.000 for materials used in
transformers and rotating machines.

22
B-H Curves

 For ferromagnetic materials,  is not constant but varies with flux density
and there is no easy way to compute it. In reality, however,it isn’t  that you
are interested in: What you really want to know is,given B, what is H, and vice versa.

 A set of curves,called B-H or magnetization curves,provides this

information. (These curves are obtained experimentally and are available in
handbooks. A separate curve is required for each material.)

 The below Figure shows typical curves for cast iron, cast steel,and sheet steel.

23
B-H curves for selected materials. 24
B-H Curves

EXAMPLE 1: If B =1.4 T for sheet steel,what is H?

Solution
Enter below Figure on the axis at B=1.4 T, continue across until
you encounter the curve for sheet steel,then read the corresponding value for H
as indicated in Figure : H=1000 At/m.

FIGURE: For sheet steel, H=1000 At/m when B=1.4 T.

25
 In a vacuum (and, to a very close approximation, in air) the relationship
between B and H is a simple one, expressed by
 
B=  oH

 AMPERE’S CIRCUT LAW

 Magnetic field intensity is related to the current producing it by Ampere’s

Circutial Law. This law, may be expressed by the equation

 H dl=  N i =  J ds


 The expression on the left-hand side of this equation is a line integral round
the closed loop. The expression on the right-hand side of this equation is a
surface integral over any surface bounded by the closed loop.

26
 MAGNETOMOTİVE FORCE

 The quantity (F =  N i) denotes

the ampere-turns enclosed by the assumed closed path and is the

source of magnetic flux which is the electric current flowing in the N-turn
winding.

 This quantity F is also known as the magnetomotive force

and frequently abbreviated mmf. This relationship is useful in the
study of electromagnetic devices.

 If the circuit consists of different sections, each of which has uniform

cross section, this equation becomes

F =  N i =  Hk lk

27
 Ampere’s Circutial Law

 This equation is analogous to Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the summation of

voltages (electromotive forces) around a closed path.

 The different parts of a magnetic circuit are in series if the flux passing through
each part is the same. This is the identical criterion to that for the series
electric circuit.

 F k = N i = Hk lk is the mmf drop across the k'th element of that loop.

This is directly analogous to Kirchoff's voltage law for electric circuits consisting
of voltage sources and resistors

 V =  Rkik

where V is the source voltage driving current around a loop and Rkik is the
voltage drop across the k'th resistive element of that loop.

28
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

RELUCTANCE
 Similarly, the analogy to Kirchoff's current law

 in = 0 which says that the sum of currents into a node in an electric

circuit equals zero is

 fn = 0 which states that the sum of the flux into a node in a magnetic
circuit is zero.

 We are already aware that F is the driving mmf which creates the flux f
penetrating the specified cross - sectional area A.

 This flux is limited in value by what is called the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit, which is defined as

F = N i = H l = B l/= f l/A= R =l/A F =Ni = fR

 The inverse of the reluctance is known as permeance oh the magnetic circuit

P=1/R 29
 EXAMPLE
Elemantery magnetic circuit

• The core is assumed to be composed of magnetic material whose permeability is much

greater than that of the surrounding air ( >0).

•The core is of uniform cross section and is excited by a winding of N turns carrying a
current of i amperes.

•This winding current produces a magnetic field in the core, as shown in the figure. The
magnetic field can be visualized in terms of flux lines which form closed loops interlinked
with the winding.

•Because of the high permeability of the magnetic core, an exact solution would show
that the magnetic flux is confined almost entirely to the core, the field lines follow the path
defined by the core, and the flux density is essentially uniform over a cross section
because the cross-sectional area is uniform. 30
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION
EXAMPLE

 When the Ampere’s law is applied, the net magnetic flux entering or leaving
a closed surface (equal to the surface integral of B over that closed surface) is
zero.
 This is equivalent to saying that all the flux which enters the surface enclosing
a volume must leave that volume over some other portion of that surface
because magnetic flux lines form closed loops.
 These facts can be used to justify the assumption that the magnetic flux
density is uniform across the cross
 fc = Bc Ac

fc = flux in core, Bc = flux density in core Ac = cross-sectional area of core

 From the relationship between the mmf acting on a magnetic circuit and the
magnetic field intensity in that circuit is.
 Ampere’s Circutial Law may be written as

Ni = Hclc

 where Hc is average magnitude of H in the core. lc is te mea lent of te core

31
32
A magnetic circuit that has a number of parts of different dimensions
materials carrying the same magnetic is called a series magnetic circuit.

 Transformers are wound on closed cores like (in that fig.s) that of the
Fig. above
 However, energy conversion devices which incorporate a moving
element must have air gaps in their magnetic circuits.

 A magnetic circuit with an air gap

33
34
Ni = Hclc

R=S =l/A

35
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION
EXAMPLE3

 When the air-gap length g is much smaller than the dimensions of the
adjacent core faces, the magnetic flux f will follow the path defined by
the core and the air gap and the techniques of magnetic-circuit
analysis can be used.

 If the air-gap length becomes excessively large, the flux will be

observed to "leak out" of the sides of the air gap and the techniques of
magnetic-circuit analysis will no longer be strictly applicable.

 Thus, provided the air-gap length g is sufficiently small, the

configuration of this magnetic core can be analyzed as a magnetic
circuit with two series components: a magnetic core of permeability ,
cross-sectional area Ac, and mean length lc, and an air gap of
permeability  0, cross-sectional area Ag, and length g.

36
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION
EXAMPLE3

 In the core the flux density can be assumed uniform; thus

 and in the air gap

 Application of Ampere’s law to this magnetic circuit yields

F = Hclc + Hglg

 and using the linear B-H relationship (B=H) give

37
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION
EXAMPLE3

 The terms that multiply the flux in this equation are known as the
reluctance R of the core and air gap, respectively,

and thus
These aequations are analogous to the relationships between the
current and voltage in an electric circuit. This analogy is illustrated in
the below

38
39
40
41
42
R=S =l/A

43
44
45
 The analogy of the magnetic circuit with the electric circuit

ELECTRIC CASE MAGNETIC CASE

Voltage = V Amper –turns F = Ni
Current = i = V / R Flux = f = F / R
Resistance = R = r l / A Reluctance = R = l / ( A)

Electric field intensity = e Magnetic field intensity = H

Voltage drop V= R i Magnetic voltage drop = f R

Current density = J = i/A Flux density = B = f / A =  H

46
47
48
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONCERSION

 EXAMPLE 4 The core of the below Figure has a 0.008-m gap cut as shown in
the Figure. Determine how much the current must increase to maintain the
original core flux in example 1. Neglect fringing.

49
 ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESS
 There are various methods for calculating the force or torque
developed in an energy conversion device.

 The method used here is based on the principle of conservation of

energy, which states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed;
it can only be changed from one form to another.
 An electromechanical converter system has three essential parts: (1)
an electric system, (2) a mechanical system, and (3) a coupling field,
as shown in Fig. 3.1. The energy transfer equation is as follows:

The energy balance equation 3.1 can therefore be written as

50
51
52
For the rotating system q is used instead of x and T for the F

53
Wm+ W ’m=  i

Wm=W ’m=  i/2=L(x) i2/2

B2
Wm= (x A) hava aralığında depo edilen enerji
2 μo

54
55
56
The dimensions of the actuator system of Fig. 3.2 are shown in Fig. E3.1. The magnetic core is
made of cast steel whose BH characteristic is shown in Fig. 1.7. The coil has 250 turns, and
the coil resistance is 5 ohms. For a fixed air gap length g=5mm, a dc source is connected
to the coil to produce a flux density of 1.0 tesla in the air gap.
Find the voltage of the dc source.

FIGURE E3.2

FIGURE E3.1

57
A B C D E k

58
59
60
61
62
Example

63
q

Electromagnetic Force

Electromechanical energy conversion depends on two basic electromagnetic

principles; electromagnetic force and electromagnetic induction
According Bio’Savart studies, “If a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, then a force is exerted on the conductor”.
The force on the current-carrying conductor is given by the relation
  
F = i  ( l  B) 
B
the force on the current-conductor in a magnetic field
depends on :
• the flux density of the field, B teslas, q dl
• the strength of the current, i amperes,
• the length of the conductor, l meters 
• the direction of the field and current. F

The SI unit of the force is the Newton; unit designation N. 64

Electromagnetic Force

Since the angle between the conductor and field are q the force is given by the relation
F = i l B sin q

If B is uniform over a length of a conductor l and perpendicular to it, then this

equation becomes simply F = i l B

B

q dl


F

65
 Electromagnetic Force

The direction of the force can be determined by means of the mixed product of .
  
F = i  ( l  B)
But in practice, it can be determined by using Fleming’s left-hand rule (often called
motor rule):

Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the left hand be extended such
that they are all right-angles to each other . If the first finger points in the direction of the
magnetic field, the second finger points in the direction of the current, then the thumb will
point in the direction of the conductor.

Summarizing;
First Finger Field
Second Finger Current
Thumb Finger Force

66
Faraday’s Law - Induced Electromotive Force

 In 1820 Oersted ebserved that a compass needle is deflected by a current-carrying

conductor.

 In 1831 Faraday discovered the principle of induced electromotive force (emf) on

which design and operation of generators, motors, and transformers are based.
Faraday’s discover is called Faraday’s Law.

 Faraday shows that if a conductor with the proper orientation moves through in a
magnetic field, or not moves but the flux passing through is changed, then an
electromagnetic force is induced in the conductor.

This induced electromagnetic force is called also as induced voltage. The symbol for
emf is e, and the SI unit of emf is the volt; unit designation V.

67
 Faraday’s Law - Induced Electromotive Force

If a loop a conductor moves in a magnetic field and if the magnetic flux passing
through the loop is changed, then induced voltage will be function of time and
motion.

According Faraday law, if the total flux linking in the translational motion then the  = (t , x)
expression for the induced voltage may be written as mathematically

d (t , x)  (t , x) dt  dx
e= =  ( )
dt t dt x dt
where x is the dependent variable which defines the motion.

From this relation it is shown that the induced voltage has two component;

 first one is the transformer voltage due to the rate of change of the magnetic flux
linking,
 second one is the motion voltage (speed voltage) due to the velocity .
68
Faraday’s Law - Induced Electromotive Force

 In the rotational motion q is used instead of the x in the above expressions;

 =  (t ,q )
d (t ,q )  (t ,q ) dt  dq
e= =  ( )
dt t dt t dt

69
Faraday’s Law - Induced Electromotive Force

 On the other hand another expression of the motion voltage is given by

  

Where
e = B ( l X v )
B the flux density, is measured in teslas,
l the length of conductor in the magnetic field, is measured in
meters,
v the conductor velocity, is measured in meters per second.

 and if the conductor moves at an angle q to the magnetic field equation becomes
simply

e=Blv sin θ
 If B is uniform over a length of a conductor l and perpendicular to it,
then this equation becomes simply

e= B l v

70
Faraday’s Law - Induced Electromotive Force

Fleming’s Right-hand rule (often called the generator rule) which

states:
Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand be extended such
that they are all at right angles to each other (as shown in Figure ).

If the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb points in the
direction of motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, then the second
finger will point in the direction of the induced e.m.f.

Summarizing;

First Finger Field

Second Finger E.m.f.
Thumb Finger Motion

71
72
Electric Machines

73
 ELEMENTARY MOTOR and GENERATOR

  
l X v F v


F
q 


n
B B
i

+v 
v 
F

N-S shows an magnet. İt is used to produce uniform field,

ACDEFB shows a conductive frame, on which the N turns coil is wound and is placed
between N-S poles,
The terminals of the each coil must be by sliding contacts at a pair of slip rings,
Each end of the coil is connected to a separate ring, two fixed terminals-called brushes-
which are kept in contact with rings will provide to access the terminal coil.

74
 ELEMENTARY MOTOR and GENERATOR


  
When a voltage is applied to the terminal of the conductive frame through l X v F v
slip rings and brushes, the current flows in the coil(conductive frame) .


According to the Bio’Savart principle, this causes a force F to be exerted on F

the current-carrying coil which, by Fleming’s left-hand rule, is downwards q 


n
between points E and F and upward between C and D for the current B B
direction shown.
This causes a torque and the coil rotates anticlockwise. As stated above
this type of operation is called “motor action”. 
v 
Due to the length of the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field the F
force F to be exerted on the each coil side is given by F = i l B N

The torque produced by the pair of the forces is

T = (force applied) (perpendicular distance)

T= i l B N 2 r sinq
75
ELEMENTARY MOTOR and GENERATOR

 When the conductive frame is rotated from the outside with angular
velocity
 and instead of the applied voltage source a resistance is connected
to the terminals of the frame, then according to Faraday’s law an
e.m.f. is induced in the conductive frame and thus a source of e.m.f.
is created.
 The current direction is reversed and the electrical energy is applied
to the resistance.
The conductive frame converts the
mechanical energy to the electrical
energy. The frame acts as simple
generator

76
ELEMENTARY MOTOR and GENERATOR

The voltage induced in the armature of the all type machines is a.c.

Since the coil rotates continuously, the voltage produced will be a repetitive,
periodic wave forms.
In the a.c machines to get this voltage as a.c. slip-ring and brush are used.

77
ELEMENTARY MOTOR and GENERATOR

 The commutator and brush segments are used to rectify this a.c voltage in the d.c
machines.

78
 ELEMENTARY MOTOR and GENERATOR

Remarks
• Practical electrical machines are quite different in
construction from the elementary motor and generator
construction.

• In the practical machines, voltages are generated in coils that

each consist of several turns of conductors.
• A group of such coils interconnected so that their generated
voltages add up to the desired value is called armature.
Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer 79
Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer 80
81
82
 ELEMENTARY MOTOR and GENERATOR

Magnetic flux may be

produced in one of
three ways:
- By electric
currents
- By permanent
magnets
- By a changing
electric field
The field poles (the magnetic
poles),
consist of pole cores and
pole shoes.
They are constructed of
laminated steel
and bolted or welded to the
yoke after
the assembly or field windings
have
inserted on them.
Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer 83
 ELEMENTARY MOTOR and GENERATOR

Fingers curl in
circular sense
the current,
Thumb points in
direction of field

Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer 84
ELEMENTARY MOTOR and GENERATOR

Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer 85
 ELEMENTARY MOTOR and GENERATOR

 The armature of an a.c machine is the stationary member,

or stator.

 For the generator, rotary motion is supplied by a prime mover (a source of

mechanical energy) to produce relative motion between the conductors and magnetic
field of the machine in order to electric energy

 In the practical machine, the rotating part is called as rotor, and stationary part is
called as stator.
Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer 86
 D. C. MACHINES

 The direct-current (DC) machines are a versatile electromechanical energy

conversion devices characterized by superior torque characteristics and a wide
range speed. Its efficiency is very good its speed range.

Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer 87
D. C. MACHINES

 Its armature has the most complicated structure of the common industrial
machines and, as a result, it is normally the most expensive.

 Despite this, in small size it is produced on a very large scale and used
extensively in portable power tools with either AC or DC excitation.

 The smallest DC motors have power ratings of the order one watt and the largest
have ratings in excess of several megawatts.

88
DC motor drivers are widely used in various industrial applications
such as
• fast transportation, trains, electrical cars and cranes because of the
requirement for controlled speed and sensible positioning. .
• in machine tools, printing
• presses, conveyors,
• fans, pumps,
• hoists,
• cranes,
• paper mills,
• textile mills,
• rolling mills, and so forth.

Small dc machines (in fractional horsepower rating) are used primarily

as control devices—such as tachogenerators for speed sensing and
servomotors for positioning and tracking. The dc machine definitely
plays an important role in industry.
89
 D. C. MACHINES

Some advantages of the DC motors to AC ones;

 The major advantages of DC motors are easy controlling

and high performance

The possibility of wide speed spectrum of speed such as

more and less than nominal speed of the motor,

 The possibility of working with constant or varying torque,

 Fast responses for changes such as acceleration,

deceleration and reversing,

 With an closed loop control, possibility for work in sensible

speed or position,

 The possibility of changing the state of the motor into

generating state or vice verse,

 Applying and controlling of DC motors are cheaper than AC Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer

motors.
 D. C. MACHINES

disadvantages of the DC motors to AC ones

 The brush and the commutator in the DC motor makes the maintenance hard
and expensive.

 With the developing power electronics technology, the disadvantages of

maintenance are being reduced so the torque per motor volume is increasing and
the magnetic motors are being improved.

 These improving maintenance options make the DC motors more useful.

Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer 91
BASİC STRUCTURE OF DC MACHİNES

 DC machines, like other electromechanical energy conversion devices,

have two sets of windings field (stationary field) and armature windings
(rotating armature).

92
 BASİC STRUCTURE OF DC MACHİNES

A stationary part called the stator consist of,

 A yoke or cylindrical frame of cast or rolled steel.
The outer frame or yoke serves double purpose;.
• Provides mechanical support for the poles and acts
as a protecting cover for the whole machine
• Carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles

93
 BASİC STRUCTURE OF DC MACHİNES

 The field windings (control winding), consisting of a few turns of wire

for a series field or many turns of fine wire for a shunt field.
 Essentially, the field coils are electromagnets whose ampere-turns provide a
magnetomotive force adequate to produce, in the air gap, the flux needed to
generate an emf or electromotive force.
 The field windings are supported on the field poles.

 The interpole and its winding are also mounted on the yoke of the machine.
These are located in the interpolar region between the main poles and are
generally smaller in size. The interpole winding is composed of a few turns of
heavy wire, since it is connected in series with the armature circuit so that its
magnetomotive force (mmf) is proportional to the armature current.

94
 BASİC STRUCTURE OF DC MACHİNES

 Compensating windings are optional; they are

connected in the same manner as the interpole
windings but are located in axial slots of the field pole
shoe.

 Brushes and brush ringing The brushes are

composed of carbon and graphite, supported from
the stator structure by ringing , and held in brush
holders

95
 BASİC STRUCTURE OF DC MACHİNES

 The armature shaft, which imparts rotation to the armature core, winding and
commutator. Mechanically joined to the shaft is armature core.

 The armature core, constructed of laminated layers of dynamo steel, providing

a low-reluctance magnetic path between the poles. The laminations serve to
reduce eddy currents in the core, and the dynamo steel used is of such a
grade as to produce a low hysteresis loss.

 The core contains axial slots in its periphery for armature winding.
96
The armature winding, consisting of insulated coils, insulated from each other and
from armature core, embedded in the slots and electrically connected to the
commutator
 A turn consists of two conductors connected to one end by an end connector.
 A coil is formed by connecting several turns in series.
 A winding is formed by connecting several coils in series.

 .

97
 Armature windings can be divided into two groups, depending on how the wires
are joined to the commutator. These are called wave windings and lap
windings.
Wave wound generators produce high voltage, low current outputs. In wave
windings, the number of parallel paths (a) is always two

Lap wound generators produce high current, low voltage output. In a lap
winding, the number of parallel paths (a) is always equal to the
number of poles (p),
98
Paralel path: Coil carrying current in the same direction
The commutator, which, by virtue of the shaft rotation, provides the necessary
switching for the commutation process.

The functiun of the commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the armature
conductores into unidirectional current in the external load circuit.

The commutator consists of copper segments, individually insulated from each other
and from the shaft, electrically connected to the armature winding coils.

 Each segments are insulated from each other by thin layers of mica.

The number of segments is equal to the number of coils.

Each commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor by means of 99

copper lug or strip
TYPES OF DC MACHİNES

 DC machines are classified according to the way in which their fields are excited or are classified
according to the electrical connections of the armature windings and the field windings.

 The magnetic field is normally supplied by means of a set field windings placed on each pole
piece and known as the field winding or control winding.

 There are two main arrangements of supplying current to the field winding;
1. Self-Excited DC Machines
2. Separately Excited Machine

 Self-Excited Machine
 In the self excited generators the field windings are energized by the current produced by
the machine themselves. Due to residual magnetism , there is always present some in the
poles. 100
 In the self excited motors the field windings supplied by means of the armature winding.
TYPES OF DC MACHİNES

 According to the interconnection of the field and armature windings the

machine is named.

 There are three means of interconnection, giving rise to the following types
of self-excited DC machine:

1. Shunt excited DC machine

2. Series excited DC machine
3. Compound excited DC machine

101
Shunt Excited DC Machine
 In this type DC machine the armature and field windings are connected in parallel.

 The shunt field winding consists of several turns of small-diameter, since the field current
is normally low current, about (1: 5) % (rated armature current). The armature conductors
are considerably larger because they are designed to carry rated current.

 n this circuit the meaning of the symbols

 vq : Armature (rotor) terminal voltage
 iq : Armature (rotor) current
 vfd : Excitation (field) voltage
 ifd : Excitation (field) current
 Rq, Lq : Armature (rotor) winding resistance and inductance
 Rc, Lc : Interpole winding resistance and inductance
 Rk, Lk : Compensating winding resistance and inductance

102
Shunt Excited DC Machine
 Suppose the machine is driven at a speed of n revelation per minute by a mechanical prime
mover. The voltage generated in the armature will be

 Eq = kv n φ [volt] 𝑘𝑣 = 𝑍 𝑎
𝑝 1
60

At the motor operation, the speed voltage now opposes the flow of current for
this reason, it is sometimes called as the back emf.

 If an electric load is connected to the armature terminals, a current iq flows. The electric power
generated in the machine is given by

 Pelec = Eq iq

 Pelec = Kt iq w φ [watts]

 the armature current iq reacts with the flux to produce a torque

 Te = Kt iq φ [newton-meter]

103
Shunt Excited DC Machine

Mathematical model (linear and nonlinear case)

 The shaft torque of the machine differs from the electromagnetic or internal (induced) torque.

 Te = Taccel.+ Tloss  Tshaft

 Kt iq φ =
dw
J
dt + B w  Tshaft

 the plus sign is used for a motor and the minus sign for generator

104
Series Excited DC Machine

 The field winding and the armature winding are electrically connected in series.
 The series field winding consists of a few turns of large diameter conductors
since it carries the same current as the armature. Such generators are rarely
used except for special purposes.

105
Compound Excited DC Machine

 The compound excited DC machine has two field windings: series excitation windings
is connected in series with the armature, and shunt excitation winding is connected in
parallel with the armature.

106
Separately -Excited Machine

 In this type of DC machine the armature and field windings are electrically separate from one another.
 The field winding is excited by a separate DC source.
 This source may be another DC generator, a rectifier, an electronic or magnetic amplifier, or it may be any
DC supply such as the battery.

107
Examples
 Example 5.5
The armature resistance of a DC shunt motor is 0.5 ohm, it draws 20 A from 220 V mains and is
running at a speed of 80 radian per second. Determine (i) Induce emfElectromagnetic torque

.
(iii) Speed in rpm

Example 5.6
A 400 V DC motor takes an armature current of 100 A when its speed is 1000 rpm If the
armatüre resistance is 0·25 ohm, calculate the torque produced in Nm.

108
109
Example 5.10
The electromagnetic torque developed in a DC machine is 80 Nm for an
armature current of 30 A.
What will be the torque for a current of 15 A? Assume constant flux. What is
the induced emf at a speed of 900 rpm and an armature current of 15 A?

110
DC MACHİNES CHARACTERISTICS

 The generator characteristics;

 No-load or open-circuit characteristics,
 Terminal or load characteristics,
 Voltage regulating,
 efficiency.

 No-load or open-circuit characteristics,

-When a generator is operating at rating speed and without any electrical load, the
operation is named as No-Load or Open-Circuit operation.

- If a generator is operated at open-circuit, then the armature or rotor current will be

zero (iq=0) and vq = Eq .

111
No-load or open-circuit characteristics

 Lets consider the separately excited DC generator, if the generator is operated at

open-circuit, then the armature or rotor current will be zero (iq=0) and vq = Eq .

 Since the machine is rotated at revelation n by its prime mover, the voltage
generated in the armature will be
Eq = vq = kv n φ

Definition : Under the condition of constant speed and open-circuit (no load)
the relation between the inducedl voltage and excitation current

Eq=f(ifd)
n= constant
iq = 0
is defined as the magnetization or saturation or no-load characteristics of the
machine.

112
No-Load or Open-circuit Characteristics

 When a generator is operating at rating speed and without any electrical load, the
operation is named as No-Load or Open-Circuit operation.

 Since the machine is rotated at revelation n by its prime mover, the voltage
generated in the armature will be Eq = vq = kv n φ
 if the generator is operated at open-circuit, then the armature or rotor current will
be zero (iq=0) and vq = Eq .

Definition : Under the condition of constant speed and open-circuit (no load)
the relation between the inducedl voltage and excitation current

Eq=f(ifd)
n= constant
iq = 0
is defined as the magnetization or saturation or no-load characteristics of the
machine.

113
No-load or open-circuit characteristics

Efd

• This characteristics is normally obtained by exciting the field coil separately,

irrespective of whether the machine is to operate as a generator or as a motor.

• Since the armature current is zero during this measurements, the terminal is
numerically equal to the speed voltage. This characteristics therefore gives the
general relationship between speed voltage and field current when the armature
rotates at its particular speed.

114
 The self excitation

 Lets consider equivalent circuit of the shunt excited DC generator

 When the machine is rotated by its prime mover at no load with a constant speed,
a small residual voltage E is generated because of the presence of residual flux
in the magnetic field poles.
Eres = kv w φ res

115
DC Machines

 Since the machine is operating at no-load, induced Eres voltage is applied to the
field circuit, and it causes a current ifd to flow in the field coils.

 The resultant mmf in the field coils produces more flux in the poles, causing an
increase in the generated voltage Efd.

 The higher Efd causes an increased ifd, further increasing the flux , which
increases Efd, and so forth.

 The final operating voltage is determined by the intersection of the field

resistance line and saturation curve

116
Terminal or Load Characteristics

 Definition : Under the condition of speed and of excitation voltage held constant
the relation between the terminal voltage and load current

vq=f(iq)
n = constant
ifd = constant
is defined as terminal (or external, or load ) characteristics of the DC generator.
The load current of the generator can be controlled by changing the load
resistance or the adjusting of the value of the voltage source connected to the
terminal of the generator.

117
 Terminal or Load Characteristics

vq

vq

iq

Separately excited DC generator Shunt excited DC generator

Series excited DC generator Compound excited DC generator

118
 Motor Characteristics-Torque Characteristics

 1. Torque characteristics
 Definition : Under the condition of field current held constant the relation between the
induced torque and load current
Te=f(iq)
ifd = constant
is defined as torque characteristics of the DC motor

Separately and shunt excited DC motor

Separately
In these motors when the field winding
current is constant then the flux φ
and according to it f(ifd ) would be
constant. Therefore, from the equation
Te= Kt iq φ
the torque characteristic Te=f(iq) would
be a straight line as shown in Fig.

,
119
 Motor Characteristics-
Torque Characteristics

Series excited DC motor

 The series excited DC motor derives its flux from
its series field, which is connected in series with the armature.
Therefore, the torque developed by the motor is directly
proportional to the square of the armature current,
Te= Kt (iq)2

Therefore, the torque characteristic would be a parabola as shown in Fig.

Compound excited DC motor
 In a cumulative compound excited motor, the flux developed by the series field
winding reinforces the flux produced by the shunt field winding.

 Thus, the torque much higher than that of a shunt excited DC motor, especially
for armature currents above rated value shown in Fig.

120
Motor Characteristics-Speed -Torque characteristics
 Definition : Under the conditions of constant field current and constant terminal
voltage the relation between the speed and induced torque
n=f(Te)
ifd = constant
vq = constant

is defined as Speed -Torque characteristics of the DC motor. By taking the armature

current instead of the induced torque similar definition is defined for the speed
characteristics

Consider From Kirchhoff’s voltage law, for the two equivalent circuits of shunt
and separately excited DC motors ,
vq = Eq  SRq iq

n=
vq   R q iq
iq = Te /Kt n=
1
vq 
 Rq T
e
k vφ k vφ (k v φ ) 2
φ

121
Motor Characteristics-Speed -Torque characteristics

n=
1
vq 
 Rq
Te
k vφ (k v φ ) 2
 If the applied voltage vq and the flux remain constant for any load, the speed will
decrease linearly with torque.
 In an actual machine, however, as the load increases, the flux is reduced because
of armature reaction.
 Since the denominator terms decrease, there is less reduction in speed and
speed regulation is improved somewhat. The speed-torque characteristics of the
DC motors are shown in Fig.

122
Motor Characteristics-Speed -Torque characteristics
In series motor, the excitation is provided solely by the series field winding which is
connected in series with the armature current. Thus, the torque developed may be
written as follows;
 Te= Kt iq φ and linear case Te=Kt (iq)2

 Therefore, the speed may be expressed as

n=
1
vq 
 Rq
= 1
vq
K tiq Kt K Te
 It is seen that the series motor will run at dangerously high speeds at no load.

For this reason, a series motor is never started with no load connected to its shaft .

123
Motor starting
 220 V shunt excited DC motor has an armature resistance of 0,2 Ohm and a field
resistance of 110 ohm. At no load, motor runs at 1000 rpm, and it draws a line
current of 0,7 A. At full load, the input to the motor is 11 kW. Consider that the air-
gap flux remains fixed at its value at no load; neglect armature reaction. Find the
armature current as soon as the voltage applied to the armature.

 When the voltage is applied to the armature since the n=0 , Eq = kv φ n = 0

vq  Eq vq 220
iqstart = = = = 1100 A
 Rq  Rq 0,2
which is approximately 23 times the rated current of 48 A.
 This starting current value is obviously too high. Provision must be made to limit the
starting current to prevent to the motor. Two times rated current is typically allowed to
flow during starting so that sufficient torque will be developed.

124
Motor starting

 Two methods of limiting the starting current are as follows;

 Insert external resistance in the armature circuit
 Apply a reduced voltage at starting.

 The first method means an additional copper loss, albeit during the starting period
only. The second method has the major disadvantage of requiring an expensive
variable-voltage supply.
 The external resistance Rqs is inserted in the armature circuit either manually or
automatically. At starting, the armature current is given by
vq
iqstart =
R
q  R qs

125
Example 5.11
A 152 V DC shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.3 ohm, a brush voltage drop of 2 V,
the rated full load current is 70 A. Calculate (i) the current at the instant of starting as
a percentage of full load current (ii) the value of
starting resistance to limit the motor current at the instant of starting to 150 percent
of the rated load current.

126
127
128
DC Machines

In the below problems No. Of pole number is taken as P instead of 2p, and No. Of parallel path is
taken as a instead of 2a

129
DC Machines

130
131
132
+ vq

133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
Synchronous Machines
 Synchronous machine is an ac machine and rotates at a
constant speed in the steady state which is called as
synchronous speed. The rotating air gap(magnetic field)
field and rotor rotate at same speed.

 The synchronous speed ns in r/min can be expressed in

terms of the applied electrical frequency fe in Hz as

ns = 60 fe / p

where 2p is total number of magnetic poles set up by the

field winding

 The necessary condition for the synchronous machines

w = p wm

where
w = electrical angular frequency
wm = mechanical angular speed
143
 Synchronous Machines
 Synchronous machines are used as
- Synchronous generator,
- Synchronous motor
- Synchronous condenser.

Synchronous generator
 Synchronous machines are used primarily as generator
of electrical power, (primary energy conversion devices
of the world’s electrical power systems today)

 Also called as alternator, their power ratings of several

hundred MVA (mega-volt-amperes) are quite common in
generating stations.

 The nominal line voltage of a synchronous generator

depends upon its kVA rating. In general, the great the
power rating, the higher the voltage.

 However, the nominal line-to- line seldom exceeds 25

kV because the increase slot insulation takes p valuable
space at the expences of the copper conductors. 144
Synchronous Machines
 Synchronous motors are identical in construction of the generators

 Most industrial drives run at variable speeds. In industry, synchronous motors

are used mainly where a constant speed is desired.

 In industrial drives, there fore before the investigation of the power electronic
semiconductor devices synchronous motors were not as widely used as
induction or dc motors. But, now with the power electronic converter they are
also used where variable speed is desired.

 In large sizes (several hundred or thousand kilowatts) synchronous motors are

used for pumps in generating stations, in mills, refineries, compressors, fans.

 In small sizes (fractional horsepower) they are used in electric clocks, timers,
record turntables, and so forth where constant speed is desired.
 Synchronous Machines
 Sometimes unloaded synchronous motors are installed in power
systems solely for power-factor correction or for control of reactive-kVA
flow.
Such machines, called synchronous condensers, may be more economical
in the larger sizes than static capacitors.

Cutaway view of a high-speed synchronous motor.

The excitor shown on the

left end of the rotor is a
small ac generator with a
rotating semiconductor
rectifier assembly. (General
Electric Company.)

146
  Rotor Windings or dc excitation windings
(dc excitation is supplied to the field winding on the rotor)

The 36-pole rotor is being lowered into stator shown in Gig. 41.. The 2400 A dc exciting current
is supplied by a 330 V, electronic rectifier. Other details are: mass: 600 t:
moment of inertia: 4140 tm2: air gap: 33 mm.
Constraction of Three-phase Synchronous Machines

Stator of three-phase synchronous machine has

three phase distributed winding similer to that
the three phase induction machine winding.

Unlike to the DC machines, the stator winding,

which is connected to the AC supply system,
is some times called the armature winding.
It is desined for high voltage and current. 3-phase, 500 MVA, 0,95 power factor, 15
kV, 60 Hz, 200 r/min generator
Internal diameter: 925 mm effective axial
length of iron stacking: 2350 mm; 378
slots.
Synchronous Machines
 The field windings of the synchronous machine are placed on the rotor while the field
windings in the DC machines are placed on the stator.

 The magnetic field created by the dc field current on the rotor, rotates at the same
speed as, or in synchronism with, the rotating magnetic field produced by the armature
currents, and a steady torque results.

 Synchronous machines are built two types of rotors:

- Salient-pole rotors Low-speed machines)

- None-salient rotors (smooth cylindrical rotors) High speed machines

Salient-pole rotors; The air gap between the rotor and stator in the radial direction is
not constant.

 Salient-pole construction have a large number of poles and operate at low speeds
(between 50 and 300 r/min) to produce the desired frequency of 60 or 50 Hz.

 The field windings are placed on the poles.

 Hydroelectric generators are salient-pole synchronous machines.

 In this type generators the rotor is directly coupled to waterwheel, and because a
frequency of 50 or 60 Hz required, a large number of poles.
 Field winding
Salient-pole rotors

 In addition to the DC field

windings a squirel-cage winding,
embedded in the pole-faces,
amortisseur windings or damper
windings.

 Under normal conditions, this

windins does not carry any
current, because the rotor turns at
synchronous speed.

 Amortisseur windings or damper

windings is used;
- to provide the startng torque
in synchronuous motor (accelerate
the rotor to near synchronous
speed)
- to helps suppress
oscillations(called hunting) caused
Amortisor windings
Cylindrical rotors (Non Salient Pole)
 The air gap between the rotor and stator in the radial
direction is constant.

 Cylindrical rotors is constructed from a solid-steel forging

so as to withstand the large centrifugal stresses inherent
in high-speed operation.

 Non-salient pole rotors (cylindrical rotor) are normally

used for rotors with 2 or 4 poles rotor

Stator and slots

Rotor and slots

Cylindrical rotors (Non Salient Pole)

 To staring and accelerating torque in the cylindrical rotors the eddy currents and
hysteresis losses are used.

 The generators of steam turbines, such as those in coal and nuclear generating
stations, and the generators of gas turbine are nonsalient (cylindrical) synchronous
machines.

 They operate best at high speeds, and they have few poles-generally two or four.
Synchronous Machines
 A dc current must be supplied to the field circuit on the rotor.

The exciter shown on the left

end of the rotor is a small ac
generator with a rotating
semiconductor rectifier
exciter assembly. (General Electric
Company.)

 Since the rotor is rotating, a special arrangement is required to get the dc power to its field
windings. The common ways are:
a) Supply the dc power from an external dc source to the rotor by means of slip rings and
brushes.
b) Supply the dc power from a special dc power source mounted directly on the shaft of
the synchronous generator.

 Some problems with slip rings and brushes:

- They increase the amount of maintenance required on the machine, since the brushes
must be checked for wear regularly.
- Brush voltage drop can be the cause of significant power losses on machines with larger 154
field currents.
Synchronous Machines

 To eliminate the problem, brushless

excitation systems have developed.

 Such a system consists of a 3-phase

stationary-field genrator whose ac output is
rectified by a group of rectifier.

 The dc output from the rectifiers is fed

directly into the field of the synchronous
generator

 Small synchronous machines – use slip

rings and brushes. Larger machines –
brushless exciters are used to supply the dc
field current.
Synchronous Machines
Phase, Single-phase and Three-phase Circuits

 Generation, transmission, and heavy-power utilization of ac

electric energy almost invariably involve a type of system or
circuit called a polyphase system or polyphase circuit.

 In such a system, each voltage source consists of a group of

voltages having related magnitudes and phase angles.

 Thus, an n-phase system employs voltage sources which

typically consist of n voltages substantially equal in
magnitude and successively displaced by a phase angle of
360°/n.

156
Synchronous Machines
Phase, Single-phase and Three-phase Circuits

 The word phase now has two distinct meanings. It may

refer to a portion of a polyphase system or circuit, or, as
in the familiar steady-state circuit theory,

 A three-phase system employs voltage sources which

typically consist of three voltages substantially equal in
magnitude and displaced by phase angles of 120°

 Because it possesses definite economic and operating

advantages, the three-phase system is by far the most
common,
 Consider the elementary two-pole, three-phase generator
 On the armature there are three coils aa', bb', and cc'
whose axes are displaced 120° in space from each other.

This winding can be

represented
schematically

 When the field is excited and rotated, voltages will be

generated in the three phases in accordance with
Faraday's law.

 If the field structure is designed so that the flux is

distributed sinusoidally over the poles, the flux linking any
phase will vary sinusoidally with time, and sinusoidal
voltages will be induced in the three phases. 158

These three voltages will be displaced 120° electrical degrees in
time
as a result of the phases being displaced 120° in space.

The corresponding
phasor
diagram

The three phase voltages are equal and displaced in phase by 120
degrees, a general characteristic of a balanced three-phase system.

159
• The six terminals a, a', b, b', c, and c' of the three-phase winding may be connected to three
independent single-phase systems, or the three phases of the winding may be interconnected
and used to supply a three-phase system.
• The three phases of the winding may be interconnected in two possible ways,
• Terminals a', b', and c' may be joined to form the neutral o, yielding a Y connection, or terminals a
and b', b and c', and c and a' may be joined individually, yielding a D connection.

160
 The three-phase voltages Va, Vb, and Vc are called line-to-neutral voltages.
 The three voltages Vab, Vbc, and Vca are called line-to-line voltages.
 The phase order or phase sequence in Fig. 4.11 is abc; that is, the voltage of phase
a reaches its maximum 120° before that of phase b.

Voltage phasor diagram for a Y-connected system.

161
When the three phases are D -connected, the corresponding phasor
diagram of currents

Current phasor diagram for A

connection.

162
 •Production of a rotating mmf wave and correspounding
rotating magnetic flux is key to the operation of polyphase
rotating electrical machinery.
•A polyphase winding excited by a balanced polyphase
currents produce a rotating mmf wave.

•In a multipole machine the mmf wave travels one pole-pair per electrical cycle
and hence one revolution in 2p/2 electrical cycles.

• In general, a rotating field of constant amplitude will be produced by m-phase

winding by balanced m-phase currents of frequncy fe when the respective phase
axes are located 2p/m electrical radians apart in space.

• The amplitude of this flux wave will be 2p/m times the maximum contribuition of
any one phase and the synchronous angular velocity will remain we = p ws
radians per second..
•The correspounding synchronous speed ns in revulation/min

ns = 60 fe / p
Synchronous Machines
ROTATING MMF WAVES IN AC MACHINES

Production of a rotating mmf wave and correspounding rotating magnetic

flux is key to the operation of polyphase rotating electrical machinery.

To understand the theory and operation of polyphase AC machines, it is necessary to

study the nature of the mmf wave produced by a polyphase winding.

Most armatures have distributed windings, that is, windings that are spread over a
number of slots around the periphery of the machine.

Before analyzing the three-phase situation, the single-phase situation is considered.

164
Single-Phase Winding mmf
• To derive the magnetic field of distributed windings, first, the single N-turn coil is considered
• By applying Ampere's law to the semicircular path shown by broken lines the magnetic field is
related to the mmf F :
 
• F=  H dl

• Assuming that the relative permeability of the iron core is infinite high. Half of the mmf appears as an mmf drop
across the top half of the air-gap, and the other half appears across the lower half of the air gap. As a result, the
air-gap mmf looks like that of below Fig.b.

H(2g) = N i

• The rectangular waveform of the mmf can be resolved into a Fourier series composed of a
fundamental component and a series of odd harmonic. For case of calculation, the mmf is
approximated as

4 Ni
F = Fa1 = cos qm = Fm cos qm
p 2
where qm is measured from the magnetic axis of the stator coil
• When the winding is excited by a sinusoidal current, i = Ia coswt,
the expression for the mmf F = 4 Ni cosθ =F cosθ coswt
a1 m m m
π 2
where Fm = 2NIa /π
Applying trigonometric identities for the product of cosines

1 1
Fa1 = Fa cos(θm -ωt)+ Fa cos(θm +ωt)=F+ +F
2 2
• This Equation contains two variables: qm
(space variable) and t (time variable).
•
• The first term, F+, is a traveling wave with
amplitude 1/2 Fa, traveling in the direction of
increasing qm.

•Similarly, the second term represents a

trawiling wave in the negative qm

• Hence, the single-phase winding mmf can be

represented by two vectors traviling in
oppositye directions, forward- and backward-
trawiling waves 166
 GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF POLYPHASE MMF

 Armature windings of synchronous and induction machines are typically three-

phase windings.

 In a three-phase machine, the windings of the individual phases are displaced

from each other by 120 electrical degrees in space around the air-gap
circumference, as shown by coils a, -a, b, -b, and c, -c

167
Each phase is excited by an alternating current which varies in magnitude sinusoidally
with time. Under balanced three-phase conditions, the instantaneous currents are

 ia(t) = Im cos (wet )

 ib(t) = Im cos (wet -120)
 ic(t) = Im cos (wet -240)

 Graphical representation of three-

phase is

168
• Each phase current produces its own mmf Fa, Fb and Fc.

• Each of them is alternating field, which oscillates on the own magnetic axis.
But the resultant mmf produced by these currents rotates by changing its
direction and the rotation speed is equal to the synchronous speed.

Fb

Fa

Fc

• mmf Fa, Fb and Fc produced by the related currents flowing in the each
phases are the proportional to the related currents,
 4N
If the Proprtional coefficient is taken as one, then at the
π 2
instants to, t1, t2, t3, t4, t5, t6 the values of Fa, Fb and Fc are the equivalent related to
currents given in a Table

wet q=weto=0 q=wet1= p/3 q=wet2=2p/3 q=wet3= p q=wet4=4p/3 q=wet5==5p/3 q=wet6=2p

ia Fmax Fmax/2

ib - Fmax/2 Fmax/2

ic - Fmax/2 - Fmax
To obtain the resultant mmf, the following procedure may be applied

 For every moment the value of the currents are defined from the
Table

 By taking into account the sign and the value of the currents, Fa, Fb
and Fc are shown by a vector and drawn along the magnetic axis of
related phase .

 Resultant mmf are obtained by adding the individual contributions of

the three phases,

   
F = Fa  Fb  Fc

171
• Consider the state of affairs at t = 0, the moment when
the phase-a current is at its maximum value Im.

• The mmf of phase a then has its maximum value Fmax,

wet q=weto=0
as shown by the vector Fa = Fmax drawn along the
magnetic axis of phase a in the two-pole machine shown
schematically in a. At this moment, currents ib and ic are ia Fmax
both lm/2 in the negative direction, as shown by the dots
and crosses in Fig. a indicating the actual instantaneous ib - Fmax/2
directions.

ic - Fmax/2
• The corresponding mmf's of phases b and c are shown
by the vectors Fb and Fc, both of magnitude Fmax/2 drawn
in the negative direction along the magnetic axes of
phases b and c, respectively.

•The resultant, obtained by adding the individual

contributions of the three phases, is a vector of magnitude
F = 3 Fmax/2 centered on the axis of phase-a.
• At a later time wet = p/3 , the currents in phases a and b are a positive half
maximum, and that in phase c is a negative maximum.

• The individual mmf components and their resultant are now shown in Fig.

wet q=wet1= p/3

ia Fmax/2

ib Fmax/2

ic - Fmax

• The resultant has the same amplitude as at t = 0, but it has now rotated
counterclockwise 60 electrical degrees in space.
• Similarly, at wet = 2p/3 (when the phase-b current is a positive maximum and
the phase-a and phase-c currents are a negative half maximum) the same
resultant mmf distribution is again obtained, but it has rotated counterclockwise
60 electrical degrees still farther and is now aligned with the magnetic axis of
phase b

wet q=wet2=2p/3
ia
- Fmax/2

ib Fmax

ic - Fmax/2
• As time passes, then, the resultant mmf wave retains its sinusoidal form and
amplitude but rotates progressively around the air gap; the net result can be
seen to be an mmf wave of constant amplitude rotating at a uniform angular
velocity.

• Under balanced three-phase conditions, the three-phase winding produces an air-gap

mmf wave which rotates at synchronous angular velocity ws
we = p ws
where
w e = electrical angular frequency [rad/sec]
w s = synchronous spatial angular veleocity of
the air- gap mmf [rad/sec]

• The correspounding synchronous speed ns in revulation/min

ns = 60 fe / p
 EQUIVALENT SYNCHRONOUS MACHİNE INDUCTANCES,
CIRCUIT, PHASOR DIAGRAMS, POWER and TORQE and
PARAMETERS

• Salient pole and cylindrical synchronous machines may be single-phase, two-

phase and three-phase.

• In all the types the synchronous machines the rotor winding receives DC voltage
through slip ring and brush.

• In the single-phase synchronous machines there is a single-phase winding in

the stator, The stator windings on the stator are represented by the lamp
parameter with a coil having a resistance and an inductance. This coil is placed on
the magnetic axis of the stator winding and the rotor winding is also placed on the
magnetic axis of the rotor winding.
In the two-phase synchronous machines there are two single-phase
windings displaced 90° in space from each other and there is also 90
degrees between the the phase winding voltages and currents too.
In the three-phase synchronous machines there are three
single-phase windings displaced 120° in space from each
other and there is also 120 degrees between the the phase
winding voltages and currents too.
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHİNE INDUCTANCES and EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS

 A cross-sectional sketch of a three-phase cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine is shown

schematically

 The figure shows a two-pole machine; alternatively, this can be considered as two poles of a multipole
machine.
 Coils aa', bb', and cc' represent distributed windings producing sinusoidal mmf and flux-density waves
rotating in the air gap.
 The reference directions for the currents are shown by dots and crosses. The field winding f f ' on the
rotor also represents a distributed winding which produces a sinusoidal mmf and flux-density wave
centered on its magnetic axis and rotating with the rotor.

179
 Angle in Electrical and Mechanical Units

Consider a synchronous machine with two magnetic poles. The idealized radial distribution of the
air gap flux density is sinusoidal along the air gap.

When the rotor rotates for one revolution, the induced emf, which is also sinusoidal, varies for one
cycle as illustrated by the waveforms in the diagram below.

If we measure the rotor position by physical or mechanical degrees or radians and the phase angles of
the flux density and emf by electrical degrees or radians, in this case, it is ready to see that the
angle measured in mechanical degrees or radians is equal to that measured in electrical degrees or
radians, i.e.
q= qm
where
q is the angle in electrical degrees or radians and qm the mechanical angle. 180
A great many synchronous machines have more than two poles. As a specific example, we
consider a four pole machine. As the rotor rotates for one revolution (qm = 2 p ), the induced emf
varies for two cycles (q = 4 p ) and hence
q = 2 qm

For a general case, if a machine has P poles, the relationship between the electrical and
mechanical units of an angle can be readily deduced as

q = qm P/2

Taking derivatives on the both side of the above equation, we obtain w = wm P/2

181
 EQUIVALENT SYNCHRONOUS MACHİNE INDUCTANCES,
CIRCUIT, PHASOR DIAGRAMS, POWER and TORQE and
PARAMETERS

 Flux linkages:

ψa = Laaia  Labi b  Lacic  Laf if ψ b = L bai a  L bbi b  L bci c  L bf i f The voltage equation phase a
dψ a dL i  L abi b  L aci c  L af i f
ψ c = Lca i a  Lcbi b  Lcci c  Lcf i f ψ f = L fa i a  L fb i b  L fc i c  L ff i f va = R a ia  = R a i a  aa a
dt dt

Laa = Lbb = Lcc = Laa = L Lab = Lac = Lcb = M Laf = Lfa = Maf cos qme
i sa  i sb  i sc = 0 i sa = (i sb  i sc )

di a di dq m
v a = R a i a  (L aa  M)  M af cos q m f - M af i f sin q m
dt dt dt
dθ m di a
With ωe = and synchronous inductance Ls = (Laa-M) v a = R a i a  Ls - (M af i f sin θ m )ω e
dt dt

 The terminal voltages phase-b and phase-c can be expressed

similiarly

182
 With dc excitation If in the field winding and current phase-a i a = I a cos(θ  ψ)

v a = R a I a cos(θ  ψ)   Ls I a ωesin( θ  ψ) - (M af I f sin θ m )ωe   

v a = Vm cos(ωe t  δ) = Reel Vm e j(ω e t  δ) = Reel Vm e jδ e jωω 
M af ωe I f = E f ωM af I f 2ππe
Ef = = N a φ f = 4,44K w f e N a φ f K=
4,44
K w Na
2 2 2π Ef=Kwef

φf =
the flux per pole
f = frequency
Kw = machine stator winding factor
For simplicity, it may be simplified to as follows:
Na = stator winding number of turns per phase

Ef = Kφw

 
v a = Vm cos(ωe t  δ) = Reel Vm e j(ωe t  δ) = Reel Vm e jδ e jωω     
i a = I a cos(ωe t  ψ) = Reel I a e j(ω e t  ψ) = Reel I a e  jψ e jω e t 
  
M af ω e I f sinωi = Reel jM af ω e I f e jωωt = Reel jM af ω e I f e j0 e jω e t    
I a sin( ωe t  ψ) = Reel jI a e j(ω e t  ψ) = Reel je  jψ e jω e t 
      
Reel Vm e jδ e jωe t = Reel R a I m e  jψ e jωω  Reel jωe Ls I m e  jψ e jωω  Reel jE f e j0 e jω t 
 
jδ  ψ E
Phasor variables are defined as, Va = Vm e Ia = I me f = jM af ω e I f = jE f

183
 Equivalent Circuit
The phase-a terminal voltage is the sum of the armature-resistance voltage drop Raia
and the induced voltage.

dψ a dL i  Labi b  Laci c  Laf i f

va = R a ia  = R a i a  aa a
dt dt

assumed that the machine is symmetric machine, stator is connected as Y and balanced
operation is considered, thus
Laa = Lbb = Lcc = Laa = L Lab = Lac = M i sa = (i sb  i sc ) i sa  i sb  i sc = 0

di di dq
v a = R a i a  (L aa  M) a  M af cos q m f - M af i f sin q m m
dt dt dt
dθ m
ωe = and synchronous inductance Ls = (Laa-M) , substitution of above Eq. gives
dt

di
v a = R a i a  Ls a - (M af i f sin θ m )ωe
dt

i a = I a cos(θ  ψ) v a = R a I a cos(θ  ψ)   Ls I a ωesin( θ  ψ) - (M af I f sin θ m )ωe

ωM af I f 2ππe
The efective value of the generated voltage ef Ef = = N a φ f = 4,44K w f e N a φ f
2 2
Na = stator winding number of turns per phase
φf = the flux per pole
fe = frequncy
Kw = machine stator winding factor
 dψ a dL i  L abi b  L aci c  L af i f
va = R a ia  = R a i a  aa a
dt dt

Under this synchronous operating condition, all machine armature quantifies (current and flux
linkage) will also vary sinusoidally in time at frequency we and
With dc excitation If in the field winding and current phase- using complex phasors for the
sinosoidal variables;

 
v a = Vm cos(ωe t  δ) = Reel Vm e j(ωe t  δ) = Reel Vm e jδ e jωω  
  
i a = I a cos(ωe t  ψ) = Reel I a e j(ω e t  ψ) = Reel I a e  jψ e jω e t 

  
I a sin( ωe t  ψ) = Reel jI a e j(ω e t  ψ) = Reel je  jψ e jω e t 
,
  
M af ωe I f sinωi = Reel jM af ωe I f e jωω = Reel jM af ωe I f e j0 e jω e t  M af ωe I f = E f


  ψ E f = jM af ωe I f = jE f
Va = Vm e jδ Ia = I m e
Phasor variables are defined as,
 For the generator operation    
E f = R a Ia  jX s Ia  Va vf = R f If

For the motor operation    

Va = R a Ia  jX s Ia  E f vf = R f If

186
 PHASOR DIAGRAMS

To draw the phasor diagram of the synchronous machine single phase

equivalent circuit and phasor voltage equation are used.

While the some phasors are known, some phasors are obtained from the phasor
diagram. Generally, the phasors the below phasors and parameters are known
 
Va Ia  = Va , I a Xs Ra

Ef and if are obtained from the phasor diagram. Phasor diagrams are drawn
for the three operation mode ;

Unity power factor – ohmic load

Laging power factor – inductive load
Leading power factor- capacitive load

187
 PHASOR DIAGRAMS

In the drawing of the phasor diagram the below procedure is applied;

 The voltage phasor is drawn at the any direction.

 By using the (  = Va , Ia ) Ia is drawn.
 RaIa and jXaIa are drawn and using the phasor equation aded to voltage
phasor according to the phasor equations
 At the end of the drawing, by joint the origin of the phasor to the phasor
vector , the Ef is obtained.
 The angle between phasor and phasor is called as load angle or rotor angle
and the symbol d is used.
 Phasor Diagrams of a Synchronous Generator are as follows
 (in thees diagrams it is writen as Ef=EA, Ia= IA, Va= VA, Ra= RA and
Xa= XA);

188
PHASOR DIAGRAMS

189
 PHASOR DIAGRAMS

Remarks:

• For a given voltage and armature current, a larger induced (internal) voltage
EA=Ef is needed for larger loads than for leading loads. Thus, a larger field
current is needed to get the same terminal voltage because Ef=kfw because must
be kept constant frequency.

• Alternatively ,for a given field current and magnitude of load current, the
terminal volatage is lower for lagging loads and higher for leadind loads.

190
 Power and Torque in Synchronous Generators

The power-flow diagram for a synchronous generator

Input: Pin = Tmech ωm

Losses: Stray losses, friction and windage losses, core loss

Converted power: Pind=Tindw = 3E f I a cosγ

(γ is the angle between Ef and Ia)

. 192
Losses: Copper losses
 Output:

Pout = 3VLL I a cosθ Pout = 3VLn I a cosθ

or

Q out = 3VLL I a sinθ or Q out = 3VLn I a sinθ

Simplifying the phasor diagram, an assumption may be made whereby the armature resistance R A is considered
to be negligible and assuming that load connected to it is lagging in nature. This gives a phasor diagram as
shown in Fig. :
Based upon the simplified phasor diagram:

E A sinδ 3VE A sinδ 3Va E f

I A cosθ = P= = sin d
Xs Xs Xs
From the above equation, it can be seen that power is dependent upon:
The angle between Va and Ef which is d.
 d is known as the torque angle of the machine.
maximum torque may be found when sind is 1 which gives the maximum power to be:

3VE A 3Va E f
Pmax = =
Xs Xs

3VE A sinδ 3Va E f

The induced torque is, T= = sin d
wm X s wm X s

194
Electromagnetic Power and Torque
A generator convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, hence the input will
be mechanical prime power, e.g. Diesel engine, steam turbine, water turbine or
anything similar.

Regardless of the type of prime power, the rotor velocity must remain constant to
maintain a stable system frequency.
In the steady-state, the mechanical torque of the steady-state should be balance with
the electromagnetic torque produced by the generator and mechanical loss torque
due to friction and windage or

195
Multiplying the synchronous speed to both side , we have the power
balance equation

where

İs the electromagnetic power of the generator

196
  Power and Torque in Synchronous Generators

The power-flow diagram for a synchronous generator

197
 TORQE And PARAMETERS

E A sinδ
I A cosθ = P=
3VE A sinδ 3Va E f
= sin d Pmax =
3VE A 3Va E f
=
Xs Xs Xs Xs Xs

3VE A sinδ 3Va E f

T= = sin d
wm X s wm X s

198
199
200
Power and Torque in Synchronous Motors

201
202
203
204
Induction Machines
Introduction
 Just like DC machines and synchronous machines, the induction machine
can be used as a generator or as a motor.

 Because their performance cannot compare with that of synchronous

machines, induction generators have not been very popular.

 In recent years, however, induction generators have found use in wind

power plants.

 Because of its wide use and popularity, the induction motor is called the
workhorse of the power industry.
 An induction motor is an AC machine in which alternating current is
suplied to the stator armature windings directly and to the rotor windings by
induction .or transformer action from the stator.
Introduction
 An induction machine is a singly-fed machine.
Therefore , it does not require a commutator, slip-
rings, or brushes.
 The absence of brushes eliminates the electrical loss
due to the brush voltage drop and the mechanical loss
due to friction between the brushes and commutator or
the slip-rings.
 Thus, an induction motor has relativeliy high efficiency.

 There are two basic types of induction motors, (but

also there is also two-phae insuction motors they are
usually used for control purposes)):
• Single-phase induction motors:
o These are are favored for domestic application.
o A large number of these motors are built in the
Introduction
 Three-phase induction motors :
They are the most common and frequently
encountered machines in industry
 simple design, rugged, low-price, easy
maintenance
 wide range of power ratings: fractional
horsepower to 10 MW
 run essentially as constant speed from
no-load to full load
 Its speed depends on the frequency of
the power source
 not easy to have variable speed control
Construction
 An induction motor has two main parts
 a stationary stator
 consisting of a steel frame that supports a
hollow, cylindrical core
 core, constructed from stacked laminations
(why?), having a number of evenly spaced
slots, providing the space for the stator
winding

Stator of IM
Construction
 a revolving rotor
 composed of punched laminations,
stacked to create a series of rotor slots,
providing space for the rotor winding
 one of two types of rotor windings:
o conventional 3-phase windings made of
insulated wire (wound-rotor) » similar to
the winding on the stator
o aluminum bus bars shorted together at
the ends by two aluminum rings, forming
a squirrel-cage shaped circuit (squirrel-
cage)

•Two basic design types depending on the rotor
design
 squirrel-cage: conducting bars laid into slots
and shorted at both ends by shorting rings, forming
a squirrel-cage shaped circuit .
 For small motors, such a winding is molded by a
force a molten conducting material (quite often,
aluminum ) in to a die-casting.
 For large motors, the squirrel-cage winding is
formed by inserting heavy
Squirrel cage rotor conducting bars
(usually of cupper, aluminum, or their alloys)
 • Wound-rotor: complete set of three-phase windings exactly as the
stator. Usually Y-connected, the ends of the three rotor wires are
connected to 3 slip rings on the rotor shaft. In this way, the rotor circuit
is accessible.
Wound rotor

Notice the
slip rings
Construction
Slip rings

Cutaway in a
typical wound-
rotor IM.
Notice the
brushes and the
slip rings

Brushes
 Rotating Magnetic Field
 Balanced three phase
windings, i.e. mechanically
displaced 120 degrees form
each other, fed by balanced
three phase source
 A rotating magnetic field
with constant magnitude is
produced, rotating
60 fe with a
speed nsync = rpm
P

Where fe is the supply

frequency and
2P is the no. of poles and nsync
Synchronous speed
2P 50 Hz 60 Hz
2 3000 3600
4 1500 1800
6 1000 1200
8 750 900
10 600 720
12 500 600
Rotating Magnetic Field
Rotating Magnetic Field
 Rotating Magnetic Field
Bnet (t ) = Ba (t )  Bb (t )  Bc (t )

= BM sin(wt )0  BM sin(wt  120)120  BM sin(wt  240)240

= BM sin(wt )xˆ
3
[0.5BM sin(wt  120)]xˆ  [ BM sin(wt  120)]yˆ
2
3
[0.5BM sin(wt  240)]xˆ  [ BM sin(wt  240)]yˆ
2
 Rotating Magnetic Field
1 3 1 3
Bnet (t ) = [ BM sin(wt )  BM sin(wt )  BM cos(wt )  BM sin(wt )  BM cos(wt )]xˆ
4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3
[ BM sin(wt )  BM cos(wt )  BM sin(wt )  BM cos(wt )]yˆ
4 4 4 4

= [1.5BM sin(wt )]xˆ  [1.5BM cos(wt )]yˆ

 ia = Im cos wt
ib = Im cos (wt-120)
ic = Im cos (wt-240)

• To obtain the resultant mmf, the following procedure may be applied

1. For every moment the value of the currents are defined from the Table 4.1,
2. By taking into account the sign and the value of the currents, Fa, Fb and Fc are shown by a vector and drawn along the
magnetic axis of related phase .    
3. Resultant mmf are obtained by adding the individual contributions of the three phases F = Fa  Fb  Fc

we q=weto q=wet1= q=wet2=2 q=wet3 q=wet4=4 q=wet5== q=wet6

t =0 p/3 p/3 =p p/3 5p/3 =2p
ia Fmax Fmax/2 - Fmax/2
ib - Fmax/2 Fmax
Fmax/2
ic - - Fmax - Fmax/2
Fmax/2
• Under balanced three-phase conditions, the three-phase
winding produces an air-gap mmf wave which rotates at
synchronous angular velocity ws
•
• we = p ws
• we = electrical angular frequency [rad/sec]
• ws = synchronous spatial angular veleocity of
• the air- gap mmf [rad/sec]
• 2p= P= Total number of poles
• The correspounding synchronous speed ns in
revulation/min
•
• ns = 60 fe /p = 120 fe /P
• Production of a rotating mmf wave and
correspounding rotating magnetic flux is key to the
operation of polyphase rotating electrical machinery.
• A polyphase winding excited by a balanced
polyphase currents produce a rotating mmf wave.
•Rotating MagneticField

ia = Im cos wt
ib
= Im cos (wt-120)
ic = Im cos (wt-240)
Principle of operation
 This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor
windings and produces an induced voltage in the
rotor windings
 Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short
circuited, for both squirrel cage and wound-
rotor, and induced current flows in the rotor
windings
 The rotor current produces another magnetic
field
 ind = kB
 A torque is produced asR a B
result
s of the
interaction of those two magnetic fields
Induction motor speed
 At what speed will the IM run?
 Can the IM run at the synchronous
speed, why?
 If rotor runs at the synchronous speed,
which is the same speed of the rotating
magnetic field, then the rotor will appear
stationary to the rotating magnetic field
and the rotating magnetic field will not
cut the rotor. So, no induced current will
flow in the rotor and no rotor magnetic
flux will be produced so no torque is
generated and the rotor speed will fall
Induction motor speed
 So, the IM will always run at a speed
lower than the synchronous speed.
An induction motor is also called an
asynchronous motor.
 The difference between the motor
speed
nslip = and
nsync the
 nmsynchronous
wslip = wspeed
sync  wm
is
called the Slip speed
 or


Where nslip= slip speed

nsync= speed of the magnetic field
The Slip
nsync  nm wsync  wm wslip
s= = =
nsync wsync wsync
Where s is the slip
Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the above
eq. by 100, notice that the slip is a ratio and doesn’t have units
Induction Motors and
Transformers
 Both IM and transformer works on
the principle of induced voltage
 Transformer: voltage applied to the
primary windings produce an induced
voltage in the secondary windings
 Induction motor: voltage applied to the
stator windings produce an induced
voltage in the rotor windings
 The difference is that, in the case of the
induction motor, the secondary windings
can move
Frequency
 The frequency of the voltage induced in
the rotor is givenPby
n
fr =
60
Where fr = the rotor frequency (Hz)
2p = number of stator poles
ns =nslip= slip speed (rpm)
P  (ns  nm )
fr =
60
P  sns
= = sf e
60
Frequency
 What would be the frequency of the
rotor’s induced voltage at any speed
nm?
fr = s fe

 When the rotor is blocked (s=1) , the

frequency of the induced voltage is
equal to the supply frequency
 On the other hand, if the rotor runs at
synchronous speed (s = 0), the
frequency will be zero
 Torque
 While the input to the induction motor
is electrical power, its output is
mechanical power and for that we
should know some terms and quantities
related to mechanical power
 Any mechanical load applied to the
motor shaft will introduce a Torque on
the motor Pout shaft. This torque2p nis related
 load = N .m w =
to the wmotor output power and the
m
m rad / s
m 60
rotor speed
Horse power
 Another unit used to measure
mechanical power is the horse power
 It is used to refer to the mechanical
output power of the motor
 Since we, as an electrical engineers,
deal with watts as a unit to measure
electrical power, there is a relation
hp = 746 watts
between horse power and watts
Example

 A 220-V, three-phase, two-pole, 50-Hz induction motor is

running at a slip of 5 percent. Find:
 (a) The speed of the magnetic fields in revolutions per minute
 (b) The speed of the rotor in revolutions per minute
 (c) The slip speed of the rotor
 (d) The rotor frequency in hertz
 SOLUTION
Example
A 208-V, 10hp, four pole, 60 Hz, Y-
connected induction motor has a full-
load slip of 5 percent
1. What is the synchronous speed of this
motor?
2. What is the rotor speed of this motor at
rated load?
3. What is the rotor frequency of this motor
at rated load?
4. What is the shaft torque of this motor at
rated load?
Solution
120 fe 120(60)
1. nsync = = = 1800 rpm
P 4

2. nm = (1  s)ns
= (1  0.05) 1800 = 1710 rpm

f r = sfe = 0.05  60 = 3Hz

3.
Pout Pout
 load = =
4. wm 2p nm
60
10 hp  746 watt / hp
= = 41.7 N .m
1710  2p  (1/ 60)
 Equivalent Circuit

The general form of the equivalent circuit for a three-phase induction motor
can be derived from the equivalent circuit of a three-phase transformer
.
The induction motor can be thought of as a three-phase transformer whose
secondary or the rotor, is short-circuited and is revolving at the motor speed.

Because the motor normally operates at balanced conditions, only a single-

phase equivalent circuit is necessary.

When balanced three-phase currents flow in both stator and rotor windings, the
resultant synchronously rotating air-gap flux wave induces balanced phase
voltages in both stator windings and rotor windings.

The stator induced voltage has a frequency equal to the frequency fs of the
applied voltage, while. the rotor induced voltage has a frequency fr given by
Eq. fs=fe
fr = s fe
 Equivalent Circuit

Consider the stator first. Mathematically, in phasor form, the relationship

may be expressed as

V1 = E1 + R1ll + jXll1 = E1 + (R1 + jX1)l1

V1 stator terminal voltage per phase

E1 stator induced voltage per phase
I1 stator current
R1 stator winding resistance
X 1 stator leakage reactance
 The magnetic core can be modeled as a parallel combination
of a resistance
Rc, to account for hysteresis and eddy current losses, and a
reactance Xm , to acount for the magnetizing current required to
produce the air-gap magnetic flux.

 The magnetizing current in an induction motor is much larger

than that a transformer because of the presence of the air
At standstill (s = 1.0), the induction motor may be viewed as a transformer
with an air gap, and

the stator per-phase induced voltage E1 is related to the rotor per-phase

induced voltage E2 by the turns ratio (N1 /N2 ); that is,

E1= (N1 /N2 )E2

When the induction motor is rotating at a speed n, or a slip s, rotor induced

voltage E2s is equal to the induced voltage at standstill E2 multiplied by the
slip.

In the short-circuited rotor circuit, the induced voltage E2s appears as a

voltage drop across the rotor resistance and leakage reactance.
The rotor resistance does not depend on the slip. However, the rotor leakage
reactance does, and is equal to

Xr = 2pfrLr = s2pfsLr,

where Lr is the leakage inductance of the rotor winding due to flux linking the rotor
winding only. s, the rotor induced voltage at slip s may be expressed mathematically
as follows:

E2s = sE2 = RrIr + j (2pfrLr)Ir = = RrIr + j s(2pfsLr) Ir =RrIr + j sX2Ir

 Equivalent Circuit

 The induction motor is similar to the transformer with the

exception that its secondary windings are free to rotate .
 we can combine the stator and rotor circuits in one equivalent
circuit, (per phase referred to the stator circuit)

 A three-phase induction motor can be represented on a per-

phase basis by an equivalent circuit at any slip s as
 Equivalent Circuit

Actual rotor Resistance

resistance equivalent to
mechanical load
Equivalent Circuit

N1 = actual turns per phase of the stator winding

kw1 = winding factor for the stator winding

kw2 = winding factor for the rotor winding

~ = per-phase induced emf in the stator winding
E1
m = amplitude of the per-phase flux
~
E1 = 4.44fe N1 kw1m
Power flow in induction motor

244
Power relations

Pin = 3 VL I L cos q = 3 Vph I ph cosq • Input power applied to the stator

PSCL = 3 I12 R1 • Stator cooper loss, (The power dissipated in the stator winding)

PAG = Pin  ( PSCL  Pcore ) = 3I 22 R2 •Total power transferred across the air
gap from the stator (air gap power)
s
PRCL = 3I 22 R2 • Rotor cooper loss, (The power dissipated in the rotor winding)

Pconv = PAG  PRCL = 3I 22 R2 (1  s) •The electromechanical power

s
Pconv
 ind =
P P 245
 = =
Pout = Pconv  ( Pf  w  Pstray )
out out

w
w
load
n
2p
m m
Power losses in Induction machines

 Copper losses
 Copper loss in the stator (The power dissipated in the
stator winding)(PSCL) = I12R1

 Copper loss in the rotor (The power dissipated in the

rotor winding)(PRCL) = I22R2
 Core loss (Hysteresis ad eddy current losses)(Pcore)
 Mechanical power loss due to friction and windage
 How this power flow in the motor?
 Also, the only element in the equivalent circuit where the air-
gap power can be consumed is in the resistor R2/s. Thus, the
air-gap power:

246
 Power relations
The actual resistive losses in the rotor circuit are given by

the rotor copper losses can also be expressed as:

•After stator copper losses, core losses and rotor copper losses are
subtracted from the input power to the motor, the remaining power
is converted from electrical to mechanical form. The power
converted, which is called developed mechanical power is given as

•And the rotor copper losses are noticed to be equal to the air gap
power times the slip PRCL = s PAG
247
Power relations

 Since Pconv = PAG – PRCL ,

 this also gives another relationship between the air-gap
power and the power converted from electrical and
mechanical form

•Finally, if the friction and windage losses and the stray losses are
known, the output power:

• The developed torque is:

248
Power losses in Induction machines

 Stray Load Loss: Stray load loss consists of the

losses arising from nonuniform current distribution in
the copper and the additional core losses produced in
the iron by distortion of the magnetic flux by the load
current.
 It is a difficult loss to determine accurately.
 By convention it is taken as 1.0 percent of the output
for dc machines.
 For synchronous and induction machines it can be
found by test.

249
Example
A 480-V, 60 Hz, 50-hp, three phase
induction motor is drawing 60A at
0.85 PF lagging. The stator copper
losses are 2 kW, and the rotor copper
losses are 700 W. The friction and
windage losses are 600 W, the core
losses are 1800 W, and the stray
losses are negligible. Find the
following quantities:
1. The air-gap power PAG.
2. The power converted P .
Solution
Pin = 3VL I L cos q
1. = 3  480  60  0.85 = 42.4 kW
PAG = Pin  PSCL  Pcore
= 42.4  2  1.8 = 38.6 kW
Pconv = PAG  PRCL
700
2. = 38.6  = 37.9 kW
1000
Pout = Pconv  PF &W

3. 600
= 37.9  = 37.3 kW
1000
Solution
37.3
Pout = = 50 hp
0.746

Pout
=  100%
Pin
4.
37.3
=  100 = 88%
42.4
Example
A 460-V, 25-hp, 60 Hz, four-pole, Y-connected
induction motor has the following impedances in
ohms per phase referred to the stator circuit:
R1= 0.641 R2= 0.332
X1= 1.106  X2= 0.464  XM= 26.3 
The total rotational losses are 1100 W and are
assumed to be constant. The core loss is lumped
in with the rotational losses. For a rotor slip of
2.2 percent at the rated voltage and rated
frequency, find the motor’s4. Pconv and Pout
1. Speed 5. ind and load
2. Stator current 6. Efficiency
3. Power factor
Solution
120 fe 120  60
nsync = = = 1800 rpm
P 4
1. n = (1  s)n = (1  0.022) 1800 = 1760 rpm
m sync

R2 0.332
Z2 =  jX 2 =  j 0.464
s 0.022
2. = 15.09  j 0.464 = 15.11.76 
1 1
Zf = =
1/ jX M  1/ Z 2  j 0.038  0.0662  1.76
1
= = 12.9431.1 
0.0773  31.1
Solution
Ztot = Z stat  Z f
= 0.641  j1.106  12.9431.1 
= 11.72  j 7.79 = 14.0733.6 
4600
Vf 3
I1 = = = 18.88  33.6 A
Ztot 14.0733.6
PF = cos 33.6 = 0.833 lagging
Pin = 3VL I L cos q = 3  460  18.88  0.833 = 12530 W
3.
PSCL = 3I12 R1 = 3(18.88)2  0.641 = 685 W
4.
PAG = Pin  PSCL = 12530  685 = 11845 W
Solution
Pconv = (1  s) PAG = (1  0.022)(11845) = 11585 W

Pout = Pconv  PF &W = 11585  1100 = 10485 W

10485
= = 14.1 hp
746
PAG 11845
 ind = = = 62.8 N.m
wsync 2p 1800
60
5. Pout 10485
 load = = = 56.9 N.m
wm 2p 1760
60
Pout 10485
=  100% =  100 = 83.7%
Pin 12530
6.
Approximate Equivalent Circuit and Torque
and Power

 A well-designed three-phase induction motor usually

meets most of the following guidelines:
 The stator winding resistance is kept small in order to
reduce the stator copper loss.
 The stator winding leakage reactance is minimized by
reducing the mean-turn length of each coil.
 Thin laminations of low-loss steel are used to cut down
the core loss. Thus, the equivalent core-loss
resistance is usually high.
 The permeability of steel selected for laminations is
high, and the operating flux density in the motor is kept
below the knee of the magnetization curve. Thus, the
magnetization reactance is usually high.
Approximate Equivalent Circuit and Torque
and Power
• An induction motor conforming to the above stipulations can be
represented by an approximate equivalent circuit, as shown in below Figure

• The analysis of an induction motor using the approximate equivalent

circuit is somewhat inaccurate, but the inaccuracy is negligible for a well-
designed motor.
• On the other hand, the approximate equivalent circuit not only simplifies
the analysis but also aids in comprehending various characteristics of the
motor.
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit and Torque
and Power

• From the approximate equivalent circuit, the rotor current is

~
~ V
I2 = 1
Re = R1  R2 X c = X 1  X 2
Re  j X c  R2 (1  s) / s
• the power developed by the motor is Pd = Pag  Prcl
3I 22 R2 Prcl = 3I 22 R2 = sPag
Pag =
s
3I 22 (1  s) R2 Nm wm
Pd = Pag  Prcl = = (1  s) Pag = SPag S =1 s =
Ns
=
ws
s
3V12 R2 (1  s) / s
Pd = 2
Rc  X e2   R2 (1  s) / s  2 Rc R2 (1  s) / s
2
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit and
Torque and Power
• From the above equation it is evident that the power
developed by a three-phase induction motor is a function of
slip.
• Therefore, we can determine the slip sp at which the power
developed by
the motor is maximum by differentiating the above equation
and setting the derivative equal to zero.
• After differentiating and canceling most of the terms, we
obtain 2
 R2  R2
R  X =  (1  sp )
2
e
2
e or Ze = (1  sp )
 sp  sp

where Ze is the magnitude of the equivalent impedance of the stator and the rotor
windings at rest. That is Ze = Re  j X e
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit and
Torque• and Power

•From above Eq. İt is obtained the slip at which the induction motor
develops maximum power as
R2
sp =
R2  Ze

• By using maximum slip sp it is obtain ed an expression for the maximum

power developed by a three-phase induction motor as

3  V12 
Pdm = 
2  Re  Ze 
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit and
Torque and Power

Maximum Torque Criterion

The torque developed by a three-phase induction motor, from developed
power is 2
3V1 R2
Td = s
 2  R2 (1  s) 
2
2 Re R2 (1  s) 
 e
R  X 2
     ws

e
 s s 

where Re = R1 + R2 and Xe = X1 + X2.

 Approximate Equivalent Circuit and
Torque and Power

Differentiating the above equation with respect to s and setting it equal to zero,
we obtain an expression for the breakdown slip sb at which the motor develops
the maximum (breakdown) torque as

R2
sb =
R12  ( X 1  X 2 ) 2

• the maximum torque developed by the motor as

3V12  1 
Tdm =  
2w s  R1  R1  ( X 1  X 2 ) 
2 2
Torque-speed characteristics

Defination : Under the condition of constant-voltage and constant-

frequency the relation between the induced torque and speed or slip
Tind=f(s)

V1 and f = constant

is defined as torque-speed characteristics of the ınduction machine

 Motor Region
Tind=f(s)
V1 and f = constant

In normal motor operation, the rotor revolves in the direction of rotation of

the magnetic field produced by the stator currents, the speed is between
zero and synchronous speed, and the corresponding slip is between 1.0 and
0 (labeled "Motor region". Motor starting conditions are those of s = 1.0)
nsync  nm wsync  wm wslip
s= = =
nsync wsync wsync
 Braking Region

• To obtain operation in the region of s greater than 1 (corresponding to a negative motor

speed), the motor must be driven backward, against the direction of rotation of its magnetic
field, by a source of mechanical power capable of counteracting the electromechanical torque
Tmech.
•The chief practical usefulness of this region is in bringing motors to a quick stop by a method
called plugging.
• By interchanging two stator leads in a three-phase motor, the phase sequence, and hence the
direction of rotation of the magnetic field, is reversed suddenly and what was a small slip
before the phase reversal becomes a slip close to 2.0 following the reversal; the motor comes to
a stop under the influence of torque Tmech.The region from s = 1.0 to s= 2.0 is labeled
"Braking region“.
 Generator Region

 The induction machine will operate as a generator if its stator terminals

are connected to a polyphase voltage source and its rotor is driven above
synchronous speed (resulting in a negative slip) by a prime mover
Torque-speed characteristics

Typical torque-speed characteristics of induction motor

Approximate Equivalent Circuit and Torque
and Power

Starting of Induction Motors

 At the time of starting, the rotor speed is zero and the
per-unit slip is unity.
 From the approximate
~ V1 equivalent circuit,
I2s =
Re  j X e
• where Re = R1 + R2 and Xe = X1 + X2. The corresponding value of the starting
torque is
3V12 R2
Tds =

w s Re2  X e2 
 Since the effective rotor resistance, R2, is very small at
the time of starting compared with its value at rated slip,
R2/s, the starting current may be as much as 400% to
800% of the full-load current.

 On the other hand, the starting torque may only be

200% to 350% of the full-load torque.

 Such a high starting current is usually unacceptable

because it results in an excessive line voltage drop which
in turn, may affect the operation of other machines
operating on the same power source.
 Since the starting
~ currentV1is directly proportional to the
applied voltage, I 2 s =
Re  j X e

 this Eq. suggests that the starting current can be

reduced by impressing a low voltage across motor
terminals at the time of starting. The induction motor
driving a fan load can be started using low-voltage
starting.

 The starting current can also be decreased by increasing

the rotor resistance. As mentioned earlier, an increase in
the rotor resistance also results in an increase in the
starting torque which, of course, is desired for those
Comments
1. The induced torque is zero at
synchronous speed. Discussed
earlier.
2. The curve is nearly linear between
no-load and full load. In this range,
the rotor resistance is much greater
than the reactance, so the rotor
current, torque increase linearly with
the slip.
3. There is a maximum possible torque
Comments
4. The starting torque of the motor is
slightly higher than its full-load
torque, so the motor will start
carrying any load it can supply at full
load.
5. The torque of the motor for a given
slip varies as the square of the
applied voltage.
6. If the rotor is driven faster than
synchronous speed it will run as a
Maximum torque
 Rotor resistance can be increased by
inserting external resistance in the
rotor of a wound-rotor induction
motor.
The
value of the maximum torque remains
unaffected
but
the speed at which it occurs can be
controlled.
Maximum torque

Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed characteristic

Example
A two-pole, 50-Hz induction motor supplies
15kW to a load at a speed of 2950 rpm.
1. What is the motor’s slip?
2. What is the induced torque in the motor
in N.m under these conditions?
3. What will be the operating speed of the
motor if its torque is doubled?
4. How much power will be supplied by the
motor when the torque is doubled?
Solution
120 f e 120  50
nsync = = = 3000 rpm
P 2
1.
nsync  nm 3000  2950
s= = = 0.0167 or 1.67%
nsync 3000

no Pf W given
2.  assume Pconv = Pload and  ind =  load
Pconv 15  103
 ind = = = 48.6 N.m
wm 2p
2950 
60
Solution
3. In the low-slip region, the torque-speed
curve is linear and the induced torque is
direct proportional to slip. So, if the
ntorque
m = (1  s )is
nsyncdoubled thenew
= (1  0.0333) 3000 =slip
2900will
rpmbe
3.33% and the motor speed will be
Pconv =  ind wm
2p
= (2  48.6)  (2900  ) = 29.5 kW
4. 60
Determination of motor
parameters
 Due to the similarity between the induction motor
equivalent circuit and the transformer equivalent circuit,
same tests are used to determine the values of the
motor parameters.
 DC test: determine the stator resistance R1
 No-load test: determine the rotational losses and
magnetization current (similar to no-load test in
Transformers).
 Locked-rotor test: determine the rotor and stator
impedances (similar to short-circuit test in
Transformers).
DC test
 The purpose of the DC test is to determine R1. A
variable DC voltage source is connected between two
stator terminals.

 The DC source is adjusted to provide approximately

rated stator current, and the resistance between the
two stator leads is determined from the voltmeter and
ammeter readings.
DC test
 then RDC =
VDC
I DC

 If the stator is Y-connected, the per

RDC
R1 =
phase stator resistance is
2

 If the stator is delta-connected,

3 the per
1 =
phase stator Rresistance
RDC
is
2
No-load test

1. The motor is allowed to spin freely

2. The only load on the motor is the friction
and windage losses, so all Pconv is
consumed by mechanical losses
3. The slip is very small
No-load test
6. At the no-load conditions, the input
power measured by meters must equal
the losses in the motor.
7. The PRCL is negligible because I2 is
extremely small because R2(1-s)/s is
Pin = PSCL  Pcore  PF &W
very large.
=
8. The input power3 I1 R1 equals
2
Prot

Prot = Pcore  PF &W

Where
No-load test
9. The equivalent input impedance is thus
approximately Vf
Z eq =  X1  X M
I1,nl

If X1 can be found, in some other fashion,

the magnetizing impedance XM will be
known
Blocked-rotor test
 In this test, the rotor is locked or
blocked so that it cannot move, a
voltage is applied to the motor, and
the resulting voltage, current and
power are measured.
Blocked-rotor test
 The AC voltage applied to the stator
is adjusted so that the current flow is
approximately full-load value.
 The locked-rotor power Pin factor can be
PF = cos q =
found as 3Vl I l

Vf
Z LR =
 The magnitude of the
I total impedance
Blocked-rotor test
Z LR = RLR  jX LR
'

= Z LR cos q  j Z LR sin q

RLR = R1  R2
'
X LR = X 1'  X 2'

Where X’1 and X’2 are the stator and

R2 = Rat
rotor reactances LR the
R1 test frequency
respectively
X =
f rated '
X =X X
LR LR 1 2
f test
Blocked-rotor test
X1 and X2 as function of XLR

Rotor Design X1 X2

Wound rotor 0.5 XLR 0.5 XLR

Design A 0.5 XLR 0.5 XLR

Design B 0.4 XLR 0.6 XLR

Design C 0.3 XLR 0.7 XLR

Design D 0.5 XLR 0.5 XLR

Midterm Exam No.2
Example
The following test data were taken on a 7.5-hp, four-
pole, 208-V, 60-Hz, design A, Y-connected IM having a
rated current of 28 A.

DC Test:
VDC = 13.6 V IDC = 28.0 A
No-load Test:
Vl = 208 V f = 60 Hz
I = 8.17 A Pin = 420 W
Locked-rotor Test:
Vl = 25 V f = 15 Hz
I = 27.9 A Pin = 920 W

(a) Sketch the per-phase equivalent circuit of this motor.

(b) Find the slip at pull-out torque, and find the value of the
pull-out torque.
 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

• Such motors are designed to operate from single-phase

supply,
• They are manufacturated in a large number of types to
perform a wide variety of useful services in
o home,
o offices,
o factories,
o workshopes
o business establishment etc.

• Small motors are particularly in the fractional kilo watt

sizes
• Since the performance requirements of the various
applications differ so widely, the motor-manifacturing
industry has develop many different types of such motors
 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

• Single-phase motors may be classified as under, depending on

their constrtaction and method of starting:

1. Induction Motors
o Split-phase Motors
o Capacitor Motors
o Shaded-pole Motors
2. Repulsion Motors (Sometime called Inductive –Series Motors

3.A.C. Series Motors

4. Un-excited Synchronous Motors

 SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

 Most induction motors of fractional-kilowatt (fractional horsepower)

rating are single-phase motors.

 In residential and commercial applications, they are found in a wide range

of equipment including refrigerators, air conditioners and heat pumps, fans,
pumps, washers, and dryers.

 Structurally, the most common types of single-phase induction motors

resemble polyphase squirrel-cage motors except for the arrangement of the
stator windings,

 İts stator is provided with a single-phase winding

 A centrifugal switch is used in some types of motors, in order to cut
out a winding, used only for starting
 SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

 When the stator windings fed from a single-phase supply, stator

windings produce magnetic field Bs, this magnetic field cut of the rotor
windings.

 According to the Faraday Law, due to the this magnetic field, the
voltages are induced on the squirrel-cage rotor conducting bars.

 Because of the conducting bars shorted at both ends by shorting

rings, induced current flows in the rotor windings. Bs

The rotor current produces rotor magnetic field Br.
Br
The direction of the rotor Br, due to the Lenz Law,
is the oppsite of the stator Bs
 SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

 A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two

magnetic fields
 ind = kBR  Bs
 Where ind is the induced torque and BR and BS are the magnetic
flux densities of the rotor and the stator respectively.

 The angle between Bs and Br is 180o, there for the torque

is zero. That is way a single-phase induction motor is not
self-starting

 If the rotor of such a machine is given an initial start by

hand or otherwise , in either direction, besides the
transformer voltage, the speed voltage will be induced,
therefore the angle between Bs and Br woluld be different
180o or zero degree the torque would be induced.

 To overcome this drawback and make the motor self-starting,

the stator of a single-phase motor is provided with an extra
winding, known as starting or auxilary winding, in addition
to the main or running winding.
 SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

 To obtain an angle between the main and starting

windings fields, that is different from 180o or zero degree,
so that the angle between the main and starting winding
currents becomes different from 180o or zero degree
too,

 The main windings are placed into 2/3 of the stator slots
and has low resistance but high reactance whereas the
starting windings are placed into 1/3 of the stator slots
and has high resistance but low reactance.

 The auxilary winding is produced by thin conductor and

multiple turn,

 The main winding is produced by thick conductor and few

turn
 Z = R +jX Z = R +jX
 SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

 So the ratio of starting winding (Resistance/Reactance)

is greater than main winding (Resistance/Reactance).

 Ideally m= 90o and s=0o

=arctg= arctgm- arctgs= 90o

In the practice this angle is about 70o – 80o.
 Main and starting windings are spaced 90o electrically
apart and connected in parallel across
the single-phase supply.

 For this purpose the ratio of (Resistance/Reactance) of

the main and starting windings is made different from
each other or a capacitor set on the auxialary windings.

 The machin is named acording to these; Inductive

starting motors and Capacitor starting motors.
 Inductive starting motors or Split-phase motors

 The main winding has low resistance but high reactance whereas the
starting winding has a high resistance, but low reactance.

 The resistance of the starting winding may be increase either by

connecting a high-resistance resistance R in series with it or by chossing
fine copper wire for winding purposes.

 The current Is drawn by the starting winding

lags behind the applied voltage V by a small angle
whereas current Im taken by the main winding lags
behind V by a very large angle.
 A centrifugul awitch S is connected in series with the startering windind and
is located inside the motor.cent of its full-load speed

When the motor speed has reached 70 to 80 per cent of its full-load speed.
Commonly sizes range from 1/2 to 1/3 h.p. (40 to 250 W)
with speeds ranging from 3.450 to 865 rpm
 A typical torque-speed characteristic of such motor is,

 Starting torque is 150 to 200 per cent of the full-load

with starting current 6 to 8 times the full-load current.

 Typical applications are fans and blowers, centrifugal pumps and separators,
washing machines, small machine tools, duplicating machines and refrigerators
an oil burners etc.
 Capacitor- start Induction-run motors

 In these motors, the necessary phase difference between Is and Im

is producud by connecting a capacitor in series with the starting
winding.
 The capacitor is designed for extremly short-duty service and is
guaranted for not more than 20 periods of operation per hour, each
period not to exceed s seconds
 When the motor reachs 75 percent of full speed, the centrifugal
switch S opens and cuts out both the starting winding and the
capacitor from the supply, the leaving only the winding across the
lines.
 Current Im drawn by the main winding lags the supply voltage V
by a large angle whereas Is leads V by a certain angle. The two
currents are out of phase with each other by about 80o (for a 200-W
50 Hz motor) as compared to nearly 30o for a split-phase motor.
TRANSFORMERS

 Transformers are the electromagnetic system that are convert the

electric energy at one voltage and current level to electric energy at
another voltage and current level by making without any rotational or
translational motion

 The principle of transformer action is based on the work of Michael

Faraday (1791-1867) whose discoveries in electromagnetic induction
showed that, given two magnetically coupled coils, a changing current
in one coil will induce an electromotive force in the other coil.

 Such electromagnetically induced emfs are called transformer

voltages, and coils specifically arranged for such purposes are called
transformers.

311
TRANSFORMERS

 Essentially, a transformer consists of two or more windings coupled by

mutual magnetic flux.

 It is conventional to think of the "input" to the transformer as the

primary and the "output" as the secondary.

312
TRANSFORMERS

 However, in many applications, power can flow either way and the
concept of primary and secondary windings can become confusing. An
alternate terminology, which refers to the windings as "high-voltage" and
"low-voltage," is often used and eliminates this confusion.

 The high-voltage coils are wound with a greater number of turns of

smaller cross-section conductor than the low voltage coils.

313
TRANSFORMERS
 Transformers are very versatile.

 They are manufactured in the wide power bands afew watts-MVA, afew
V-kV, and wide size afew cm-m.

 They are used

In electric power generation and distribution systems
• to raise or lower voltage in AC
• supply electric power to users at safe/suitable voltage
• to provide reduced-voltage starting of AC motors

In electronic, communication and control systems

• to isolate one electric circuit from another;
• to superimpose an alternating voltage on a DC circuit;
• to provide low voltage for solid-state control, for battery charging,
door bells, etc
• Transfer signals.

314
 The two basic types of transformer construction used

core type
primary and secondary
coils wound on different
legs. Half of each
winding is placed side by
side or concentrically or
other limb or leg

shell type
both coils wound
on the same leg.

315
TRANSFORMERS

 The wider spacing between primary and secondary in the core-type transformer
gives it an advantage in high-voltage applications.

 The shell type, however, has the advantage of less leakage flux

 Transformer core material is made of cold-rolled. high-permeability silicon

steel laminations, and each lamination is insulated with a varnish or oxide
coating to reduce eddy currents.

 The coils are wound with insulated aluminum conductor or insulated copper
conductor, depending on design considerations.

316
TRANSFORMERS
Transformers in electric power generation and distribution systems
 Cooling is provided by air convection. forced air. insulating liquids. or gas;

 Transformers are cllassified to the type of cooling employed

- Ventilated dry-type transformers

- Gas-filled Dry-type Transformers
- Liquid-immersed Transformers
 Ventilated dry-type transformers are cooled by natural air convection.
The principal application for this type of transformer is in schools, hospitals. And
shopping areas,

 Gas-filled Dry-type Transformers

Gas-filled dry-type transformers are cooled with nitrogen or other dielectric gases.
such as fluorocarbon C2F6 and sulfurhexafloride SF6•
These transformers can be installed indoors, outdoors, or in underground enviroiments

 Liquid-immersed transformers have hermetically scaled tanks filled with

insulating liquid to provide both Insulation and cooling.

317
 Distribution transformer (cutaway view) of the type used by electric
utilities to distribute power to residential and commercial users
The tank is filled with oil to improve insulation and to remove heat from the
core and windings.

Distribution transformers: (a) oil cooled distribution transformers with

corrugated tank; (b) pole distribution transformer; (c) interior of a pole distribution
transformer.
318
TRANSFORMERS

 The two basic types of transformer construction used for transformers used in
the electronics and telecomminication systems

 Transformers fall into two broad categories ,iron-core and air-core.

 Iron core transformers are generally used for low frequency applications such
as audio- and power-frequency applications.

 For high-frequency applications (such as in radio circuits), air-core and ferrite-
core types are used.

 Ferrite (a magnetic material made from powdered iron oxide) Greatly increases
coupling between coils (compared with air) while maintaining low losses

319
 Single-phase air cooled transformers

Single-phase air cooled transformers: (a) separation transformer; (b) loudspeaker transformer;
(c) radio transformer; (d) step-down transformer with rectier; (e) door bell transformer; (f)
welding transformer.

320
Transformer schematic symbols used in the electronics and
telecomminication systems

Iron-core transformers of the type used in electronic

equipment.

321
 TRANSFORMERS
 The principle of transformer action is explained with the aid of below figure,
which shows coil 1 connected to a batterv through a switch and coil 2 connected
to a resistor.
Closing the switch causes a clockwise (CW)
build up of flux in the iron core, generating a
voltage in each coil that is proportional to
the number of turns in the coil and the rate
of change of flux through the respective
coils.
In accordance with Lenz's law, the voltage generated in
each coil will be induced in a direction to oppose the
action that caused it. Thus. the induced emf in coil 1
must be opposite in direction to the battery voltage.
This opposing voltage shown as e1 in the Figure is
called a counter-emf (cemf).

Assuming no leakage, the same flux (called the mutual flux) exists in both coils. Thus, the
induced volages dφ
dφ
e1 = N1 e 2 = N2 N1 = turns in coil1 N2 = turns in coil 2
dt dt
When f mutual reaches steady state, df /dt = 0. the induced emfs = 0, and i2 = 0.
322
 TRANSFORMERS WITH SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES

The primary connected to a sinusoidal source and the secondary connected to a

switch and a resistor load.

Assumptions:
- the permeability of the core is
constant over the range of
transformer operation. and thus the
reluctance of the core is constant;
,- there is no leakage flux, hence the
same flux links both primary and
,secondary windings

323
 TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

 The primary connected to a time varying source and the secondary

connected to a switch and a resistor load.
 The first model which will be drived for the transformer the ideal
transformer under the assumptions that
 The electric fields effect produced by the windings are negligible,
 All magnetic flux is confined to the ferromagnetic core (i.e leakage flux is
assumed negligible),
 The realtive permeability of the core material is so high that negligible mmf is
requried to establish the flux in the core,
 The core losses are negligible.

324
 TRANSFORMERS IDEAL TRANSFORMER

Under the above assumptions, when a time-varying voltage v1

is impressed on the primary terminals, a core flux must be
established such that the counter emf equals the impressed
voltage. Thus

The core flux also links the secondary and produces an induced emf e2, and an equal
secondary terminal voltage v2, given by

325
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

 Thus an ideal transformer transforms voltages in the direct ratio

of the turns in its windings.

 Now let a load be connected to the secondary.

A current i2 and an mmf N2i2 are then present in the secondary.

 The core flux is unchanged by the presence of a load on the

secondary, and hence the net exciting mmf acting on the core

[equal to ( Nlil - N2i2)]

will not change and hence will remain negligible.

326
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

Thus,

Nlil = N2i2 il = N2i2/ Nl

 The current ratio is therefore the inverse of the turns ratio.

and if the referens current direction is taken into account then

i2= -i2 that is

İnstantaneous power = İnstantaneous power

input output

327
 TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

 An additional property of the ideal transformer can be seen by considering the

case of a sinusoidal applied voltage and an impedance load.

 The dot markings indicate terminals of

corresponding polarity;
 The voltages Vl and V2 are in phase.
 Note again that the polarity of il is defined as
into the dotted terminal and
the polarity of i2 is defined as out of the dotted
terminal.
 Phasor symbolism can be used. The circuit is

328
TRANSFORMERS WITH SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES

The variation of the flux will be sinusoidal

The voltages induced in the primary and secondary windings by the

sinusoidal variation of flux in the respective coil windows

=a

329
TRANSFORMERS WITH SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES

=a

=a

V1=aV2=V’2

I1=I2/a=I’2

330
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

331
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

 Noting that the load impedance Z2 is related to the secondary voltages and
 currents
Z 2 = V2/I2
Z2 is the complex impedance of the load.
 Consequently, as far as its effect is concerned, an impedance Z2 in the
secondary circuit can be replaced by an equivalent impedance Z1 in the primary
circuit, provided that

Z1=(N1/N2)2 Z2

332
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

 Thus the circuit

 Can be replaced

333
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

Transferring an impedance from one side of a transformer to the other in this

fashion is called referring the impedance to the other side; impedances transform
as the square of the turns ratio.

To summarize, in an ideal transformer, voltages are transformed in the direct

ratio of turns, currents in the inverse ratio, and impedances in the direct ratio
squared; power and voltamperes are unchanged.

334
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

 Example 2
The equivalent circuit of Fig.a shows an ideal transformer with an impedance R2
+ j X2 = 1 + j4 Ohm connected in series with the secondary. The turns ratio
N1/N2 = 5:1. (a) Draw an equivalent circuit with the series impedance
referred to the primary side. (b) For a primary voltage of 120 V rms and a
short connected across the terminals A-B, calculate the primary current and
the current flowing in the short.

335
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

Solution
a) The secondary impedance is referred to the primary by the turns ratio squared.
Thus

R’2 + jX’2 =(N1/N2)2 (R2 + jX2) = 25+ j lOO Ohm

The new equivalent

336
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

b. From Z1=(N1/N2)2 Z2, a short at terminals A-B will appear as a short at the primary
of the ideal transformer in Fig.b since the zero voltage of the short is reflected by the
turns ratio N1/N2 to the primary.

Hence the primary current will be given by

I1 = V1 / (R'2 + jX'2) = (120 / (25 + jl00)= 0.28 + j 1.13 Arms

corresponding to a magnitude of 1.16 Arms. From Il = N2I2/ Nl , the secondary current

will equal N1/N2 = 5 times that of the current in the primary. Thus the current in the
short will have a magnitude of 5(1.16) = 5.8 A rms

337
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

Example 3.
 A generator rated at 480V, 60 Hz is connected a transmission line with an
impedance of 0.18+j0.24 Ohm. At the end of the transmission line there is a load
of 4+j3 Ohm.
a) If the power system is exactly as described in Figure (a), what will the voltage
at the load be? What will the transmission line losses be?
 b) Suppose a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the
transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end of
the line (Figure (b)). What will the load voltage be now? What will the
transmission line losses be now?

338
 TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

Solution a) Fig.a shows the power system without transformers. Here IG=Iline=Iload . The
line current in this system is given by

339
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

Therefore the load voltage is

And the line losses are

340
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

b) Fig.b shows the power system with transformer. To analyze this

341
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

This equivalent system is

342
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

 The total empedance at the transmission line level (Zline+Z’load is now reflected to
the source’s voltage level;

The resulting equivalent circuit is

343
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

The generator current is

344
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

The line losses are given by

345
Example 4. Determine the number of turns of the primary and the
secondary windings of a 60 Hz, 240/120 V
ideal transformer, if the flux in its magnetic core is no more than 5 mWb

Solution
 The number of turns that the primary winding must have is

346
347
Example .5

348
349
Example 6

350
Example 7

351
Example 8

352
Example 9

353
Practical Transformer

 The ideal transformer is not a sufficiently

accurate model for all purposes.

 Now consider a more realistic model for a physical transformer.

In this case, a better model should include:

1. Tha electric field produced by the windings are negligible,

2. Winding resistances may be represented by the lumped parameters at the
terminal of the windings,
3. The magnetic flux produced by the mmf of winding may be divided into two
distinct parts- flux is not entrily confined to the core-;
i) Leakage flux, linking all of the turns of winding producing the
mmf, but non of the turns of the other winding.
ii) Mutual flux linking all of the turns both winding.
4. The core permeability μr is finite (the permeability of the core is constant)
5. There are real and reactive losses in the core
6. Stray capacitances due to the electrical coupling between windings are neglected

354
TRANSFORMER
REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

The total flux linked by the primary and secondary may be divided into two
components

355
 2. Winding resistances may be represented by the
lumped parameters at the terminal of the windings,
3. The magnetic flux produced by the mmf of winding
may be divided into two distinct parts- flux is not entrily
confined to the core-;
i) Leakage flux, linking all of the turns of winding

producing the mmf, but non of the turns of the

other winding.
ii) Mutual flux linking all of the turns both winding.
4. The core permeability μr is finite (the
permeability of the core is constant)
5. There are real and reactive losses in the core
6. Stray capacitances due to the electrical
coupling between windings are neglected

 Consider a single phase transformer as

shown in Fig.a
In this figure assumptions 2 and 3 are
illiustruted,
where the magnetic system at the centre of the
diagram represents the transformer deprived of
its property of winding resistance. It is therefore
no longer a pictorial representation of a real
transformer.

356
The resulting representation of
this transformer is
shown in Figure b. Here, X1
and X2 are the leakage fluxes,
respectively.

Therefore

357
 TRANSFORMER
REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

When the primary voltage is sinusoidal function of time and linear load is
connected to the secondary terminal (i’2=-i’2), the currents and volatages,

v1(t)= V1 cos(wt+d) v2(t)= V2 cos(wt)

i1(t)= I1 cos(wt-1) i2(t)= I2 cos(wt-2)

These functions can be written by using complex variables,

v1(t)= Reel{V1 ej(wt+d)} v2(t)= Reel{V2 ejwt }

i1(t)= Reel{I1 ej(wt-1)} i2(t)= Reel{I2 ej(wt-2)}

Reel{V1 ej(wt+d)} = R1 Reel{I1 ej(wt-1)} +w L11 Reel{jI1 ej(wt-1) + Lm1 Reel{jwI1

ej(wt-1) –jwI’2 ej(wt-2) }

358
TRANSFORMER
REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Xl1 = w L11 Xm =Lm1w

In this equations phasor variables are defined as follows

V1= V1/2 ejd V’2= V1/2 ej0 I1= I1/2 e-j 1 I’2= I’2/2 e-j 2
V1=R1 I1 +j Xl1 I1 + j Xm(I1+ I’2)

-V’2=R1 I’2 +j Xl2 I’2 + j Xm(I’2- I1)

359
 REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

The primary current into two

components; an exciting
component and a load
component. Exciting
component Io defined as the
additional primary current
requried to produce the
resultant mutual flux.
I1>> Primary current
V1>> Primary voltage I1=Io+I2’
R1>> Primary resistance Io : No load or exciting current
X1>> Primary reactance
R2’>> Secondary rereistance referred to primary =a2R2
X2’>> Secondary reactance referred to primary =a2X2
V2’>> Secondary voltag referred to primary =a V2
I2’>> Secondary current referred to primary =I2 /a
RC >> represents core losses
Xm >> represents magnetizing reactance

360
TRANSFORMER
APROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

 Since the Rc and Xm are very large than R’2 and X’2, then the
approximate equivalent circuits commonly used for constant-frequency
power transformer analysis.
 Computations can often be greatly simplified by moving the shunt
branch reptesenting the exciting current out from from the middle of the
T circuit to either the primary or secondary

361
TRANSFORMER
APROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

 Further analytical simpilication results from neglecting the exciting current in

which transformer is reperesented as an equivalent series empedance


 If the transformer is large (several hundere kilovoltamperes

or more) equivalent resistance is smal compared with the
equivalent reactance

362
TRANSFORMERS
NO LOADS CONDITIONS

 With no load connected to the secondary, the current in the primary is just enough to
establish the magnetic flux needed for transformer action and to supply the hysteresis and
eddy-current losses in the irons.

 This no-load current, called the exciting current, varies between 1 and 2 percent of rated
current in large power transformers, and may be as high as 6 percent of rated current in
very small distribution transformers.

363
 TRANSFORMERS
NO LOADS CONDITIONS

The exciting current can be divided into two right-angle components:

- a core-loss component that supplies the hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the iron,
- magnetizing component that establishes the mutual flux (fM) that links both primary and
secondary windings.
The corresponding phasor diagram for the exciting current and its right angle components

because of the low value of exciting current, the voltage drop due to winding resistance at
no-load is insignificant, and thus is not shown on the diagram. Expressing the exciting
current in terms of its quadrature components, 364
Core-loss component Ife = Io cos foc
Magnetising component, Im = Io sin foc

365
TRANSFORMERS )
NO LOADS CONDITIONS

VT
I Fe
V
= T
R fe
IM =
jX M I o = I fe  I M
where
Io = exciting current
Ife = core-loss component
IM = magnetizing component
XM= fictitious magnetizing reactance that accounts for the
magnetizing current
Rfe= fictitious resistance that accounts for the core loss
VT = voltage applied to primary

366
Example

367
368
369
Example

370
Example

S=VI >>> P=S*Cos

371
 Determinetion of the equivalent circuits

 Two very simple tests serve to determine the parameters of the equivalent
circuits.
 These tests consist of measuring the input voltage, current, and power
to the primary, first with the secondary short-circuited and then with the
secondary open-circuited.

Short-Circuit Test
The short-circuit test can be used to find the equivalent series
impedance Req +j Xeq.

 Although the choice of winding to short-circuit is arbitrary, for the sake of

this discussion we will consider the short circuit to be applied to the
transformer secondary and voltage applied to primary.
 For convenience, the high voltage side is usually taken as the primary in
this test.

372
Determinetion of the equivalent circuits

Short circuit test

 Short circuit, a fraction of the rated voltage to produce rated primary current at rated
frequency, is applied to the primary terminals with the secondary terminals short-circuited.
 Because the equivalent series impedance in a typical transformer is relatively small,
typically an applied primary voltage on the order of 10 to 15 percent or less of the rated
value will result in rated current.

Psc Short circuit real power

Vsc Short circuit primary voltage
Isc Short circuit primary current

373
Determinetion of the equivalent circuits

Short circuit test

• Since core resistance and magnetizin reactance are very much larger than R2’
and X2’, the below approximate equivalent circuit is used.

The short circuit impedance can be

approximated as

374
 Determinetion of the equivalent circuits

Short circuit test

 Windings resistances R1 and R2 may be measured using the Volt- amper

method or Ohmmeter or Wheatson or Kelvin bridge.
 Using the assumtion of the paths for leakage of the both windings have
the same reluctances,
 The primary and secondary lekages can be obtained Xl1=Xl2=Xsc/2

375
 Determinetion of the equivalent circuits

Open-Circuit Test
The open-circuit test is performed with the secondary open circuited
and rated voltage impressed on the primary.

Under this condition an exciting current of a few percent of full-load current (less on
large transformers and more on smaller ones) is obtained.

For convenience, the low-voltage side is usually taken as the primary in this test.

376
 Determinetion of the equivalent circuits

Open-Circuit Test

The above figures shows that the equivalent circuit with the transformer secondary
impedance refetted to the primary side and the secondary open-circuited.
The open-circuit empedance Zoc loking into primary side under these conditions is

377
Determinetion of the equivalent circuits

Open-Circuit Test

Core-loss component Ife = Io cos foc

Magnetising component, Im = Io sin foc

378
 Example
Tests are performed on a 1φ, 10 kVA, 2200=220 V, 60 Hz transformer and the following
results are obtained.

(a) Derive the parameters for the approximate equivalent circuits referred to the low-voltage
side and the high-voltage side.
(b) Express the excitation current as a percentage of the rated current.
(c) Determine the power factor for the no-load and short-circuit tests.
Solution
Note that for the no-load test the supply voltage (full-rated voltage of 220 V) is applied to the
low-voltage winding, and for the short-circuit test the supply voltage is applied to the high-
voltage winding with the low-voltage winding shorted. The subscripts H and L will be used to
represent quantities for the high-voltage and low-voltage windings, respectively.

379
380
381
382
THREE-PHASE TARNSFORMERS

 Most AC power is generated and distributed as 3-phase.

 Three-phase transformers have all three phases wound on a single
magnetic core or with a bank of single-phase transformers connected in
3-phase arrangements
 The voltage is raised or lowered with 3-phase transformers,
.

Core Type Shell Type

383
THREE-PHASE TARNSFORMERS

 There are four major three-phase transformer connections for two winding
transformers.

384
385
386
• Autotransformers share a winding – one winding transformers. often used
in transmission and subtranmission subtranmissions.

• Instrument for monitoring system voltages and currents at convenient

levels.
• They provide line current and voltage information to protective relays and
control systems at lower power levels.
• These instrument transformers connect to metering equipment, protective
relaying equipment, and telecommunications equipment.

387
THREE-PHASE TARNSFORMERS

 The current and voltage relationships between phase and line values
for a wye connection; for a delta connection;

 Vline= 3 Vphase Iline= Iphase ; Iline= 3 Iphase Vline= Vphase

Example
A 150-kVA bank of wye-delta connected step-down transformers has an input line-voltage of
4160 V and an output line-voltage of 240 V. Determine a) Bank ratio; b) transformer ratio;
c) rated line and phase currents for the high side; d) rated line and phase currents for the
low side.

Solution
a) The wye-delta connection is shown the Fig.a The bank ratio is the ratio of high side to low
side line voltages:
VlineHS 4160
= = 17,3
VlineLS 240

b) The transformer ratio is the the ratio of phase voltages.

388
THREE-PHASE TARNSFORMERS

For the wye primary

4160
 Vline= 3 Vphase Vphase= = 2402
3

For the secondary

V phaseHS
 Vphase= Vline= 240 V =
2402
= 10,0
V phaseLS 240

150 .000
c) S = 3VlineI line I line = = 20,8
3x 4160

Since the high side is wye connected Iphase= Iline= 20,8 A

d) S = 3VlineI line I line =
150 .000
= 360 ,8 A 360 ,8
I phase = = 208 ,3 A
3x 240 3

389
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS-EXAMPLE

 Example 1-

A 50-kVA 2400:240-V 60-Hz distribution transformer has a leakage impedance of 0.72

+ j0.92 Ohm in the high-voltage winding and 0.0070 + j0.0090 Ohm in the low-voltage
winding. At rated voltage and frequency, the impedance Zf of the shunt branch (equal to the
impedance of Rc and j Xm in parallel) accounting for the exciting current is 6.32 + j43.7
Ohm when viewed from the low-voltage side. Draw the equivalent circuit referred to (a) the
high-voltage side and (b) the low-voltage side, and label the impedances numerically. C) If
2400 V rms is applied to the high-side voltage side of the transformer, calculate the magnitude
of the current into the magnetizing empedance referred to the high-voltage side and the low-
voltage side

390
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS-EXAMPLE

 Solution
The circuits are given in Fig. a and b, respectively, with the high-voltage side
numbered 1 and the low-voltage side numbered 2.
The voltages given on the nameplate of a power system transformer are based
on the turns ratio and neglect the small leakage-impedance voltage drops under
load.
Since this is a=N1/N2 = V1/V2 =2400/240 transformer, impedances are
referred by multiplying a2 or dividing a2 by a2 =100; for example, the value
of an impedance referred to the high-voltage side is greater by a factor of
100 than its value referred to the low-voltage side.

391
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS-EXAMPLE

Referred to the primary side

(referred to the high-voltage side)

392
 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS-EXAMPLE

N N2
X = ( 2 ) 2 X l1
' V1' = ( )V1
Referred to the secondary side l1
N1 N1
(referred to the low-voltage side) N1
N I1' = (
R = ( 2 ) 2 R1
'
1 N2
) I1
N1

393