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A Simulated Annealing Algorithm for Scheduling Problems

Article in Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics · October 2019

DOI: 10.4236/jamp.2019.simann

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A Simulated Annealing Algorithm

for Scheduling Problems
Crescenzio Gallo1 , Vito Capozzi2
1
Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Foggia, Italy
Email: [email protected]
2
Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Foggia, Italy
Email: [email protected]

Received Sep. 17, 2019

Copyright c 2019 by author(s) and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
An algorithm using the heuristic technique of Simulated Annealing to solve a scheduling prob-
lem is presented, focusing on the scheduling issues. The approximated method is examined
together with its key parameters (freezing, tempering, cooling, number of contours to be ex-
plored), and the choices made in identifying these parameters are illustrated to generate a
good algorithm that efficiently solves the scheduling problem.

Keywords
Scheduling; Simulated Annealing; Discrete optimization algorithm

1. Introduction
With reference to the management of the Central Processing Unit, it is fundamental to have an algorithm that
specifies the sequence according to which the processing service is assigned to a specific job. This algorithm
is called scheduler and implements some computing methodologies which can be very time-consuming [8, 17].
For example, it may be more expensive to run the “scheduler” job than the entire sequence to process.
It is therefore important to indicate a “cost” function with which the weight of each possible sequence
can be measured: based on this, it is necessary to find a sequence order that allows the minimization of the
cost function. It is therefore clear that scheduling issues [2, 20] are intimately linked to decisions about what
needs to be done and how it needs to be done.
Given a problem, we will say that we can extract the sequence requests associated with this problem

How to cite this paper: C. Gallo and V. Capozzi 1(2019) Feature selection with non linear PCA: a
neural network approach. ***********,*,***-***
 C. Gallo, V. Capozzi

when the following assumptions are met:

1. The jobs to be executed are fully known, and may not be announced to the scheduling process simul-
taneously but sequentially over time;
2. The resources that can be used in the execution of the work are fully specified;

3. The sequence of core tasks required to perform each of the jobs is known.

The scheduling problem [5, 6, 7, 16, 19] can be solved in several ways [13, 29]. A first way is to enu-
merate all the possible sequences, calculating the value of the target function, to choose the sequence which
corresponds to the lowest value of the target function. For example if we have 10 jobs on 4 machines, we
have to calculate the value of the target function for each of the 10! possible permutations. This method
then becomes not available for medium and large scheduling problems.
Other classic methods that solve the problem exactly consist of algorithms for branch-and-bound, branch-
and-bound truncated, dynamic programming. In the following we will examine the solution approach known
as “Simulated Annealing” [22, 27], an approach which derives from the controlled lowering of temperature
in physical systems.

2. Simulated Annealing
Simulated annealing [10, 11, 30] is an approach based on statistical mechanics concepts, and it is motivated
by an analogy with the behaviour of physical systems during the cooling process. This is an heuristic method
for global optimization which requires no particular assumption on objective function (e.g. convexity).
This analogy is best illustrated in terms of the physics of single crystal formation starting from a melting
phase. The temperature of this “molten crystal” is then very slowly reduced until the crystal structure is
formed. If cooling is carried out very quickly, undesirable phenomena occur as dislocations and polycrystalline
phases. In particular, very large irregularities are enclosed in the structure of the crystal and the level of
potential energy incorporated is much higher than that which would exist in a perfect single crystal.
This “quick cooling” process can be seen as similar to local optimization (Table 1). The states of the
physical system correspond to the solutions of a combinatorial optimization problem; the energy of a state
corresponds to the cost of a solution and the minimum energy, or fundamental state, corresponds to an
optimal solution.

Physical System Optimization Problem

State Feasible solution
Energy Cost
Fundamental state Optimal solution
Quick cooling Local search
Accurate annealing Simulated annealing

Table 1: The analogy between the physical system and the discrete optimization problem.

When the temperature is, theoretically, at absolute zero Kelvin no state transition can lead to a higher
energy state. Therefore, as in local optimization, upward movements are forbidden and the consequences of
this may be undesirable.
When crystals begin to form, the risk of undesirable local states is avoided by lowering the temperature
very slowly, with a process called accurate annealing. In this process the temperature drops very slowly
through a series of levels, each maintained long enough to allow the search for equilibrium — at that
temperature — for the crystal. As long as the temperature is larger than zero Kelvin, upward movements
are always possible. By preventing the temperature from deviating from that compatible with the energy

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 C. Gallo, V. Capozzi

level of the current equilibrium, we can hope to avoid local optima until we are relatively close to the basic
state.
Simulated annealing is the algorithmic counterpart of this physical annealing process. The name simu-
lated annealing refers to the technique of simulation of the physical annealing process in conjunction with
an annealing schedule of temperature decrease.
Simulated annealing can be seen as an extension of the local optimization technique [3, 4, 18, 31], where
the initial solution is repeatedly improved by small local perturbations until none of these perturbations
improves the solution. Simulated annealing randomizes this procedure in such a way as to occasionally
allow upward movements, i.e. perturbations that worsen the solution, and this in an attempt to reduce the
probability of blocking in a locally optimal but overall poor solution.
Simulated Annealing was proposed by [26] and used in the field of statistical physics to determine the
properties of metal alloys at a given temperature. The possibility of solving combinatorial optimization
problems have been demonstrated independently by [23] and [9].
Further applications have been carried out with great success, as shown in Refs. [1, 14, 23, 24, 33].
A simple scheme of simulated annealing [15] is as follows:

1. Consider an initial solution S.

2. Until you have a freeze

(a) For w := 0 up to the number of neighbors considered
i. Let S 0 an unexamined neighbor of S
ii. If Cost(S 0 )<Cost(S) then S := S 0
else set S := S 0 with a certain probability
(b) Cool the temperature

3. Return S

From what reported above it is clear that the fundamental parameters for the simulated annealing phase are:

Freezing. This consists of establishing the criteria for stopping the algorithm.
Temperature. This is a value on which the probability of accepting upward movements depends. At each
iteration this temperature is reduced by a constant rate called cooling.
Number of Neighbors to Explore. Each iteration considers a (fixed) number of sequences close to the one
considered.
Simulated annealing is widely applicable in local optimization problems. It seems to produce better solutions
than other local optimization techniques, as it allows you to get out of locally excellent solutions but overall poor
allowing to make upward movements with a certain probability.

3. Mathematical models
We indicate with the term completion time a value that depends on the particular scheduling sequence. If a
job is in position i in the sequence, its completion time is the completion time of the job at position i − 1 plus
its processing time. We will also indicate with the term total completion time the sum of the completion times
of each individual job.
The sequencing problems that we will deal with are called non preemptive: the job that is in the processing
state cannot be interrupted for any reason.
For the solution of scheduling problems [21, 28, 32] we describe two mathematical models that formalize it.
The first model formulates the problem of scheduling n jobs on m machines that minimizes the total completion
time. We indicate with xkij the variable that is equal to 1 if job j is the k−th job executed on the machine i,

3
 C. Gallo, V. Capozzi

0 otherwise. We also indicate pij the processing time of process j on the machine i; we will therefore represent
Pm
with pj = pij the processing time of process j on all the machines.
i=1
The model is therefore as follows:

n X
X n
Minimize pj xkij (i = 1, . . . , m) subject to:
k=1 j=1
n X
X m
xkij = 1 (j = 1, . . . , n)
k=1 i=1
n
X
xkij ≤ 1 (k = 1, . . . , n; i = 1, . . . , m)
j=1

xkij ∈ {0, 1} (i = 1, . . . , m; j, k = 1, . . . , n)

where the first constraint binds the j-th job to run as k-th on the i-th machine for some i and j.
The second model concerns the scheduling of n jobs on m machines that minimizes the sum of single com-
k P n
pletion times. By specifying with Cjk = pj xlij the completion time of job j scheduled as k-th on machine
P
l=1 j=1
i, the related mathematical model is therefore:

n X
X m
Minimize Cjk subject to:
k=1 i=1
n X
X m
xkij = 1 (j = 1, . . . , n)
k=1 i=1
n
X
xkij ≤ 1 (k = 1, . . . , n; i = 1, . . . , m)
j=1

xkij ∈ {0, 1} (i = 1, . . . , m; j, k = 1, . . . , n)

4. Simulated Annealing Algorithm

The problem that we are going to solve with the simulated annealing technique can be summarized as follows:
schedule a sequence of n jobs on m machines establishing that the order of n jobs is the same on each of the m
machines.

4.1. Basic parameters

Basic parameters for the phase of simulated annealing are:

Initialization. Choice of an initial solution. In theory the choice of an initial solution has no effect on the quality
of the final solution, i.e. the solution converges to the overall optimum independently of the initial solution
[25]. There are, however, experimentally verified exceptions to this theory, in which it has been shown
that sometimes the process of convergence to the optimal solution is more rapid if one takes as the initial

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 C. Gallo, V. Capozzi

solution a solution obtained by means of a good heuristic [12]. However, the overall computational time for
an approximate solution starting from a “good” initial solution is often higher than the computational time
needed to obtain an approximate solution starting from any initial solution. The reason for this approach is
to be found in the peculiarity of the mechanism that generates the perturbations.
Selection of a mechanism that generates small perturbations, to pass from one configuration to another one.
The perturbation pattern is a crucial element to obtain good performances [9, 23]. The chosen perturbation
scheme consists in considering two randomly generated numbers and exchanging places for the jobs that in
the scheduling queue occupy the positions relative to the random numbers chosen.

4.2. Data structure

The (data) structure chosen for the representation of the i−th job (with 0 < i ≤ n − 1) is as follows:

p(j ), ∀ 0 ≤ j ≤ m − 1
It is a vector that stores the job’s processing time on the j−th processor. These data are read from the
input stream.
tot p
This is the total processing time of the job, obtained by summing the processing time of the job on all
processors.
d
Job due date. This data is read from the input stream and is calculated by the generator in the following
way:
d = totp + (input percentage of totp )

c
This is the completion time of the job; its value depends on the particular permutation of the scheduling
queue. If the job is in the i−th position in the scheduling queue, then its completion time is given by the
value of the completion time of the job that precedes it in the scheduling queue plus its own processing
time.
late
This is the late work value of the job. It is computed as follows:
• If c − d ≤ 0 then late = 0
• If 0 < c − d ≤ totp then late = c − d
• If c − d > totp then late = totp

Other useful information for understanding the algorithm are:

Actual order
This is the scheduling order of the jobs currently considered. The order following the reading of the data
from the input stream is assumed to be 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.
Best order
It is the job scheduling order that obtains the minimum from the objective function. This minimum value
is stored in the variable BOF (Best Objective F unction).

Parameters chosen for the simulated annealing phase are:

Freezing criterion
A freeze occurs when the algorithm, for MAXITERATIONS times, does not perform neither a downhill nor
an uphill movement.

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 C. Gallo, V. Capozzi

Temperature
The initial temperature for the simulated annealing phase is set in the temperature parameter.

Cooling
At each iteration, the temperature is cooled by a parameter cooling.
L
Number of neighbors to visit at each iteration.

4.3. The proposed algorithm

The proposed algorithm consists of two nested cycles. Basically, it chooses two integer random numbers (i
and j) in the range 1, . . . , n; then exchanges job i and job j in the scheduling queue; finally it calculates the value
of the target function. If this value is lower than the value stored in BOF, the scheduling order is stored and the
variable BOF is updated. Otherwise, if the value worsens the target function, a probability is computed on the
basis of which the worsening of the target function is accepted.
The detailed algorithm is shown in Fig. 1. Its strength lies in calculating the value of the target function
without having to physically exchange jobs i and j.

4.4. Application example

Let’s take an example of how the algorithm works. Let’s suppose we have the situation represented in Table
2, and we have chosen the random indexes 2 and 4. The resulting queue by exchanging the jobs that occupy
these positions into the actual order queue is shown in Table 3.

actual order 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
job 0 job 1 job 2 job 3 job 4 job 5 job 6
machine 0 10 40 80 30 50 15 70
machine 1 8 45 87 22 52 13 75
machine 2 12 30 85 20 50 18 48
totp 30 115 252 72 152 46 193
d 33 126.5 277.2 79.2 167.2 50.6 212.3
c 30 145 397 469 621 667 860
late 0 18.5 119.8 72 152 46 193
best order 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Table 2: Initial job sequence

In this case we have worsened the value of the target function. In fact the best order queue is unchanged,
but it remains evident that for the completed time values:
• jobs 0 and 1 remained unchanged;

• jobs 2 and 3 have been increased by the same amount (100); this increase is precisely equal to the difference
diff = totp (4) − totp (2) of the initial scheme;
• jobs 4, 5 and 6 remained unchanged.
For late work values, we have instead:

• late has not changed for jobs 0 and 1 in the new scheduling queue;

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 C. Gallo, V. Capozzi

Consider an initial solution S

Consider an initial temperature > 0; reset the variable BOF and the cooling counter
while you don’t have a freeze
for w := 0 to L
Generate two (different) random indexes i and j ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}
Consider the scheduling queue S 0 , obtained by exchanging jobs that are in the actual order(i) and
actual order(j) position in the scheduling queue S
Compute the value of the target function s0 for the schedule queue S 0
if s0 ≤ s /* downward movement */
s := s0 /* put S = S 0 , i.e. physically exchange jobs */
if BOF> s0
BOF:= s0
best order := actual order
endif
else
0
p := min{1, e−(s −s)/temperature }
Let ε a random number in the interval [0, 1] ∩ R
if ε > p /* upward movement */
s := s0 /* put S = S 0 */
else
increase the cooling counter
endif
endif
endfor
temperature := cooling ∗ temperature

endwhile

Figure 1: The proposed algorithm

actual order 0 1 4 3 2 5 6
job 0 job 1 job 4 job 3 job 2 job 5 job 6
machine 0 10 40 50 30 80 15 70
machine 1 8 45 52 22 87 13 75
machine 2 12 30 50 20 85 18 48
totp 30 115 152 72 252 46 193
d 33 126.5 167.2 79.2 277.2 50.6 212.3
c 30 145 297 369 621 667 860
late 0 18.5 129.8 72 252 46 193
best order 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Table 3: Permuted job sequence

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 C. Gallo, V. Capozzi

• for the job that occupies position 2 in the new queue, calculated the new completed time, the latter is then
compared with the total processing time of job 4 to compute the new late work value;

• for job 3, once the new completed time value has been calculated, it is compared with the due date value
of job 3 in the previous scheme;
• for job in position 4 in the new scheduling queue, the completed time value is unchanged, so you have
simply to compare it with the total job 2 processing time in the old scheduling queue to get the new late
work value;

• for jobs 5 and 6, the late values are unchanged.

In general, if we intend to exchange job i with job j (i < j):
• the values of late work will be unchanged for jobs in positions {0, 1, . . . , i − 1};

• the following value is computed: diff = totp (j) − totp (i);

• for job in position i, the new late work value is calculated by comparing the quantity:diff +c(i) − d(j) with
the due date value of process j;
• for jobs in position {i + 1, i + 2, . . . , j − 1} the late work value is computed by comparing the quantity:
diff +c(k) − d(k) with the due date value of process k, where k ∈ {i + 1, i + 2, . . . , j − 1};
• for job in position j the new late work value is computed by comparing the quantity: diff +c(j) − d(i) with
the due date value of process i;
• for jobs in position {j + 1, j + 2, . . . , n − 1} the late work values are unchanged.

We can therefore calculate the value of the target function without having to build the tables for the new
schedule queue, but simply by processing information that is already available without using memory quantities.

5. Computational tests
Before analyzing the computational tests, let us consider the (random) generator of the numbers that form
the processing time values. For each job on each machine a random integer number is generated in the range
[0, 100] ∩ N which represents the processing time value of the job on the processor.
The seed of the random number generator is initialized to a different number depending on the system time.
The due date time is instead calculated by adding the sum of the values of the processing time of the job on all
the available machines, increased by a percentage given by input.
Data to be considered common to all tests are:
• increase percentage for the due date values: 10;
• number of neighbors to be explored: 10;

• number of iterations per problem: 15.

With regard to the number of neighbors to be explored, the above value was chosen because from an experi-
mental check it was noted that for a smaller number (of neighbors) you get results close to the optimal one, while
for a larger number you will keep (in the cases we tested) values that often coincide with the optimal one but,
being computationally severe, they negatively affect the execution time of the approximation algorithm.
Some test cases are presented to verify the computational weight on the basis of the hypotheses made.

8
 C. Gallo, V. Capozzi

Guidance for understanding computational testing.

Table 4 summarises the tests performed. The indications at the top of the columns indicate:

n
number of jobs to be scheduled;
m
number of machines used;

OF
optimum value of the target function;
OF=SA
number of times that the result obtained with the approximated algorithm of simulated annealing coincides
with the optimal one;

T min
minimum time (in seconds) taken by the simulated annealing algorithm to find a result that coincided with
the optimum;
T max
maximum time (in seconds) taken by the simulated annealing algorithm to find a result that coincided with
the optimum;
OF6=SA
number of times the result obtained by the approximated simulated annealing algorithm differs from the
optimum one;

min
minimum value used by the simulated annealing algorithm to obtain a result that does not coincide with
the optimum;
T
time (in seconds) taken by the simulated annealing algorithm to obtain a result that does not coincide with
the optimum;
∆%
average percentage difference.

6. Conclusions
In the present work we present an algorithm that uses the heuristic technique of Simulated Annealing to
solve a scheduling problem. The followed solution method is of a non-deterministic type, and it is based on the
probability of obtaining an optimal solution in relation to the current situation of the target function and the
possible improvement due to a controlled movement in the space of the feasible solutions — linked to the concept
of “temperature” of the algorithm — until it reaches the freezing point, that is an optimal acceptable one.
The choice made in our method prescinds from the initial solution and it rather takes into account the total
computing time required, since it is more important to obtain an “almost” optimal feasible solution in a reasonable
time rather than trying to arrive at the optimal solution in a theoretically unlimited time.

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 Table 4: Computational tests
n m OF OF=SA Tmin (sec.) Tmax (sec.) OF6=SA min T (sec.) ∆% max T (sec.) ∆%
10 3 1112.200 15 0.04 0.35 0 – – – – – –
10 4 1312.600 13 0.06 0.33 2 1338.6 0.03 1.94 1353.6 0.01 3.02
10 5 2393.210 15 0.06 0.33 0 – – – – – –

10
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C. Gallo, V. Capozzi
 C. Gallo, V. Capozzi

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