Unit 3 sum up
Introduction
Chemistry and chemical technology are crucial for economic growth, especially in developing countries
like Ethiopia. Ethiopia has deposits of various minerals and natural resources. To harness these
resources, Ethiopia needs an industrial revolution to produce chemicals on a large scale. Industrial
chemistry is a branch of chemistry that transforms natural raw materials and their derivatives into
beneficial products for humanity. It differs from classical chemistry by bridging the gap between
theoretical and commercial chemistry. The chemical industry, which is based on industrial chemistry,
produces a wide range of products such as food, medicine, building materials, and plastics. These
products can be used by other industries or directly by consumers. Chemical industries use raw
materials, involve chemical reactions, consume large amounts of energy, employ safe operation
methods, and conduct quality control tests to ensure product specifications are met.
An industry is a well - organized, highly automated and specialized facility for large - scale goods
manufacturing. It can also cover other commercial activities like agriculture, transportation and
hospitality.
The manufacturing industry is part of the economy focused on producing goods from raw materials
through organized labor. Manufacturing industries vary in raw materials, skills and technologies, thus
producing different products.
The chemical industry manufactures industrial chemicals. Products come from chemical reactions
between organic/inorganic materials, extraction/separation/purification of natural products (with or
without chemical reactions), or preparation of valuable materials.
It can be classified based on raw materials: some use natural resources (e.g., sugar industries use sugar
cane), while others use products from other industries (e.g., detergent and soap industries use pre -
processed compounds). Based on product type, there are food processing, beverage, textile, wearing
apparel, leather, paper and chemical industries, etc.
Basic steps in a manufacturing process.
Valuable products include every industrial product. These products are either directly used or serve as
raw materials to synthesize products that are important to solve the society demands in diff erent
necessities.
Both organic and inorganic chemicals could be used in the manufacturing process.
Ammonia (NH3)
Its lighter than air with a density of 0.769 kg/m3 at STP. Ammonia is commercially and commonly
available as an aqueous solution; the most common commercial formulation is 28–30% NH3.In the
aqueous solution ammonia is partially ionized according to the equilibrium:
and it is often referred to as ammonium hydroxide. It is a weak base. It is colorless with sharp and
intensely irritating gas at room temperature. Its melting point is -77.7°C. Its boiling point is -33.35 °C. Its
solubility in water at 25°c is 34%.
Uses
It serves as a cleaning and antimicrobial agent, a raw material for nitrogen fertilizers, in the
manufacturing of explosives like nitrocellulose and TNT, in the production of soda ash, and in the
Ostwald process to obtain nitric acid. The wide range of applications has led to high demand for its
production.
In the laboratory, ammonia can be easily prepared by heating an ammonium salt (e.g., ammonium
chloride) with a strong alkali (e.g., sodium hydroxide or calcium hydroxide).
Ammonia can also be made by warming concentrated ammonium hydroxide, it has high demand for its
production.
Haber - Bosch involves the direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen under high pressure with a
catalyst.
German chemist Fritz Haber discovered it in the early 20th century, which uses atmospheric hydrogen
and nitrogen to produce ammonia. Carl Bosch scaled it up for industrial production. Both received Nobel
Prizes (Haber in 1918 and Bosch in 1931), and the process is thus named the Haber - Bosch process.
Currently, around 454 million tons of nitrogen fertilizers are produced.
Industrial process
Step 1: Hydrogen and nitrogen are needed. Hydrogen was originally obtained by water electrolysis but
now methane from natural gas is used as it requires less energy. Nitrogen is obtained via fractional
distillation of air.
Step 2: Hydrogen and nitrogen are put into an iron - containing chamber. At a pressure of 15 - 25 MPa
and a temperature of 300 - 500 °C, they react to form ammonia.
Step 3: The hot gas mixture goes through a condenser. Ammonia condenses easily and is collected, while
the remaining nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled back into the reactor. This recycling maintains
pressure, reduces waste, and enables a 97% conversion of reactants to ammonia for product
manufacturing.
b. Nitric Acid
Pure nitric acid has a density of 1.51 g/cm3. It is a colorless liquid, with a highly pungent odor, in
appearance similar to water, but on exposure to light, it turns brown because of slight decomposition
into NO2(brown) and O2.
Nitric acid is a strong acid that fully dissociates in dilute aqueous solutions to yield H₃O⁺ and NO₃⁻. It
forms many soluble salts called nitrates. It's a highly corrosive mineral acid and a strong oxidizing agent,
especially when hot and concentrated. This property causes violent reactions with metals, releasing
hydrogen. It reacts easily with many substances, generates heat when dissolved in water, and many of its
reactions are explosive.
Uses
Neutralization of nitric acid with ammonia results in ammonium nitrate – the most important
component of mineral fertilizers used worldwide. In addition, HNO3 can be used for soil acidif i cation in
horticulture. In the chemical industry, nitric acid is primarily a precursor to organic nitrogen compounds,
such as nitrobenzenes. When combined with aromatic compounds, it yields substances used to make
explosives such as TNT and nitroglycerine. It also works for rocket fuel.
Nitric acid can be obtained by reacting nitrogen dioxide with water. Under laboratory conditions, an
alternative production method is the reaction of potassium nitrate with sulphuric acid to produce pure
nitric acid.
The Ostwald process is used to produce concentrated nitric acid (HNO₃). It starts with the catalytic
oxidation of ammonia to form nitric oxide. Special absorption towers are then used to obtain the
concentrated acid, with a 65 - 68% concentration being the most sought - after for purchase.
The principle of the Ostwald process is the oxidation of ammonia to nitric acid. First, ammonia
undergoes oxidation to form nitric oxide. Further oxidation of nitric oxide leads to the formation of
nitrous gases, which can capture water molecules, ultimately resulting in the production of nitric acid.
This process involves catalytic oxidation with O₂ to generate the desired product.
Nitrogen-Based Fertilizers
The common N - based fertilizers are anhydrous ammonia, urea, urea - ammonium nitrate (UAN)
solutions, and Diammonium Monohydrogen Phosphate (DAP) with the formula (NH₄)₂HPO₄. Anhydrous
ammonia (NH₃) is the most basic nitrogen fertilizer. As it's a gas at atmospheric pressure, it has to be
compressed into a liquid for transport, storage, and application. It's applied from a pressurized tank and
injected into the soil to avoid escaping into the air.
Even though about 80% of the Earth's atmosphere is nitrogen, it's in a form that plants can't use
chemically or biologically. Through the complex Haber - Bosch process, nitrogen from the air is captured,
combined with a hydrogen source, and converted into a plant - usable form. This form of ammonia is
also called ammonia gas or anhydrous (water - free) ammonia.
Anhydrous ammonia is applied by injecting it 6 - 8 inches below the soil surface to reduce the escape of
gaseous NH₃. It's hygroscopic and quickly reacts with water in the soil to form ammonium (NH₄⁺). As a
positively - charged ion, it binds to negatively - charged soil components like clay and organic matter and
is held on the soil exchange complex, so it doesn't move with water.
Anhydrous ammonia
is applied by injecting it 6 - 8 inches below the soil surface to reduce the escape of gaseous NH₃. It's
hygroscopic and quickly reacts with water in the soil to form ammonium (NH₄⁺). As a positively - charged
ion, it binds to negatively - charged soil components like clay and organic matter and is held on the soil
exchange complex, so it doesn't move with water.
In the soil, with suitable temperatures for biological activity, NH₄⁺ ions undergo nitrification. This process
is carried out by specific soil bacteria. Nitrification generally starts at soil temperatures above 50 ℉ and
speeds up as the temperature rises, though some activity occurs below 50 ℉ too. First, Nitrosomonas
bacteria convert ammonium to nitrite (NO₂⁻), and then Nitrobacter and Nitrosolobus bacteria convert
nitrite to nitrate (NO₃⁻).
Urea
is a popular solid nitrogen fertilizer due to its high nitrogen content of 46%. It can be readily applied to
various crops and turf. The advantages of easy handling, storage, and transport, along with the flexibility
of being applied using different equipment and the ability to be blended with other solid fertilizers, have
made it the most commonly used nitrogen - source fertilizer globally.
Soil Reactions - If urea is applied to the soil surface and not incorporated by water or tillage, it is subject
to volatilization losses of nitrogen. This occurs as urea undergoes hydrolysis to carbon dioxide and
ammonia.
Urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN)
are also popular nitrogen fertilizers. These solutions are made by dissolving urea and ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3) in water.
Urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN) solutions are mixtures of urea, ammonium nitrate, and water in various
proportions i.e. 35%, 45% and 20% respectively. All common UAN solutions are formulated to contain
50% of actual N as amide, (from urea), 25% as ammonium (from ammonium nitrate), and 25% as nitrate
(from ammonium nitrate).
Production
of liquid urea - ammonium nitrate (UAN) fertilizer is straightforward. A heated urea - dissolved solution is
mixed with a heated ammonium nitrate solution to create a clear liquid fertilizer, with half of the total
nitrogen coming from the urea and the other half from the ammonium nitrate.
In soil reactions, the urea part of UAN solutions behaves like dry urea. When applied on the surface,
amide - N in the solution can be lost through volatilization as urease hydrolysis releases NH₃. However, if
UAN is incorporated through tillage or with enough water, NH₃ rapidly reacts with soil water to form
NH₄⁺. Both this ammonium and the one from ammonium nitrate in the solution stick to soil components
at the application site and aren't lost in the short - term. Similar to nitrogen from anhydrous ammonia,
this nitrogen can either be taken up by plants in the ammonium form or, if not, be converted to nitrate
by soil bacteria.
C. Sulphuric Acid
Anhydrous sulphuric acid is a colorless, odorless, heavy, oily liquid. It has a molar mass of 98 g/mol,
melts at 10.5 °C and boils at 338 °C. It's soluble in water in all ratios but when diluting, it must be added
to water due to the highly exothermic dissolution process. It's a strong oxidizing and dehydrating agent,
capable of oxidizing metals and non - metals while reducing to sulphur dioxide. Different concentrations
of sulphuric acid have different names and uses, like 33.5% being battery acid and 62.18% being
chamber acid for fertilizer production.
D.Herbicides and pesticides
Pesticides kill, repel, or control forms of animal and plant life considered to damage or be a nuisance in
agriculture and domestic life. It decreases yield losses, and maintain high product quality.
Chemical pesticides can be classified according to their chemical composition. This makes it easier to
have uniform and scientific classification of pesticides in order to establish a relationship between
structure, activity, toxicity and degradation mechanisms, among others.
E.Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
Properties
(NaOH), or caustic soda, is a stable, white, translucent crystalline solid with a melting point of 591 K. It's
corrosive, decomposing proteins at room - temperature and can cause chemical burns. It readily
dissolves in water and moderately in alcohol, with a bitter taste and soapy feel, and is strongly alkaline.
Manufacturing
NaOH doesn't occur naturally. It's made from sodium chloride and water via electrolysis. The Castner -
Kellner process is a common method. In this process, a rectangular steel tank lined with ebonite is used.
Titanium is the anode, and a mercury layer at the tank bottom is the cathode. Brine solution ionizes
(2NaCl → 2Na⁺ + 2Cl⁻). Sodium ions form a sodium amalgam at the cathode, while chlorine ions form
chlorine gas at the anode. The amalgam is then treated with water in a denuder to form a NaOH
solution, which is evaporated to get solid NaOH. Care must be taken to prevent mercury losses.
Some hydrates have melting points above 0 °C, so insulation or heating is needed during storage.
Uses
It's widely used in industries like pulp and paper, alumina extraction, textiles, and drinking - water
production. It's crucial in making soaps, detergents, washing soda, and is used in waste - gas scrubbing,
saponification, etherification, esterification reactions, and basic catalysis.
F. Some Manufacturing Industries in Ethiopia
Presently, domestic demand for chemicals and manufacturing products is met through imports. In 2022,
there are over 2228 manufacturing industries in Ethiopia. This subsection focuses on the production of
final products such as glass, cement, ceramics, sugar, alcoholic beverages, food packing and
preservation, soaps and dry detergents, tanning, and paper.
Glass manufacturing
Glass is an amorphous solid, inexpensive to make, easy to shape when molten, heat - resistant when set,
chemically inert, and infinitely recyclable. Its main component is silica.
Types of Glass:
- Quartz glass: Made by melting pure silica at about 2300°C. It has high strength, low thermal expansion,
and high transparency.
- Soda - lime glass: Ordinary glass, a mixture of sodium and calcium silicates. Made by heating silica sand,
sodium carbonate/sulphate, and limestone.
Accounts for 90% of manufactured glass, used for window panes, bottles, etc.
- Borosilicate glass (Pyrex): Made with boron (III) oxide instead of limestone. Resistant to chemical
corrosion and temperature changes, used for ovenware and lab equipment.
Glass Production Steps:
1. Batch preparation: Raw materials (60% sand, 21% sodium carbonate, 19% limestone) are prepared in
appropriate combinations.
2. Glass melting: Raw materials and recycled glass (separated by colour) are fed into a 24 - hour -
operating furnace and heated to about 1600°C. Additives for colour and improved properties are added.
3. Glass forming: Melted glass is shaped as required.
4. *Annealing*: Internal stresses are removed by reheating and slow - cooling.
5. Inspection: The glass product is tested for quality.
6. *Packing and dispatching*: The final stage before distribution.
Manufacturing of Ceramics
Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic solids created by heating and cooling. Traditional ceramics like
porcelain, tiles, and pottery come from minerals such as clay, talc, and feldspar, whereas industrial
ceramics are made from highly purified powders like silicon carbide, alumina, and titanium carbide.
The production process begins with extracting minerals from the earth, crushing them into fine powder,
and purifying them through chemical precipitation. The purified powder is then heated to remove
impurities, including water.
The manufacturing process includes:
Moulding – Wax or plastics may be added to the powder to improve workability before shaping it into
different objects.
Densification – The shaped ceramic is heated in an electric furnace at temperatures between 1000°C and
1700°C. This causes the particles to merge, making the material denser and stronger while shrinking by
up to 20%.
Ceramics have distinct properties: they are hard, wear-resistant, brittle, refractory, thermal and electrical
insulators, non-magnetic, oxidation- range from common uses (art, kitchenware, tiles) to lesser-known
ones (electrical insulators, computer parts, dental replacements, engine components, and even artificial
bones). Future innovations might include ceramics for water purification and artificial heart valves.
Cement production has been increasing due to the establishment of new companies and upgrades to
existing ones. Ethiopia has abundant reserves of raw materials needed for cement production, including
limestone, clay, silica sand, gypsum, calcium silicate, calcium aluminate, iron (III) oxide, magnesium
oxide, and pumice. Limestone is the primary ingredient and is widely available across Africa.
Manufacturing process involves heating limestone (chalk), alumina (Al₂O₃), and silica-bearing materials
like clay to 1450°C in a kiln. This process, called calcination, produces a hard substance known as clinker.
The clinker is then ground with a small amount of gypsum to create Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).
When gypsum is added during production, the resulting cement is called Portland Cement, named after
Portland Rock in England, which it resembles when hardened.
Sugar
1. Collecting the Harvest – Sugarcane is gathered using both manual and mechanical methods. The canes
are cut at ground level, stripped of leaves, trimmed, and transported to a sugar factory.
2. Cleansing and Grinding – The stalks are washed and cut at the sugar mill. A machine with rotating
knives shreds the cane, a process known as grinding. Hot water is sprayed onto the shredded cane to
dissolve hard sugar before it moves onto a conveyor belt.
3. Juicing – Heavy-duty rollers extract juice from the shredded cane. The leftover fibrous pulp, called
bagasse, is dried and used as fuel. The extracted juice is sent for clarification.
4. Clarifying – Carbon dioxide and milk of lime are added to the juice and heated. This causes calcium
carbonate to form, which attracts impurities like fats, gums, and waxes, pulling them away from the
juice. The juice is then filtered for further purification.
5. Evaporation – The clarified juice is heated in a vacuum, allowing water to evaporate at a low
temperature. This results in a thick, brown syrup.
6. Crystallization – The syrup undergoes further evaporation in a sterilized vacuum pan, where pulverized
sugar is added to encourage crystal formation. The resulting thick mass of large sugar crystals is sent to a
centrifuge, which spins and dries them, producing raw sugar that is edible.
7. Refinery – Raw sugar is sent to a refinery, where molasses, minerals, and impurities are removed. It is
mixed with a sugar-water solution to loosen molasses, forming magma. Machines spin the magma,
separating molasses from the crystals. The crystals are washed, dissolved, and filtered. Sulfur dioxide
(SO₂) is used for bleaching, removing color and water, leaving behind clear concentrated syrup, which
undergoes another round of evaporation.
8. Separation and Packaging – The final dried sugar is separated by crystal size and packaged as white
refined sugar.
Paper and palm
Paper is not a single chemical compound but a mixture made from rags and wood pulp, combined with
additives, bleached, and dried. Wood pulp is a fibrous material derived from pulpwood, which includes
softwood trees (spruce, pine, fir, larch, hemlock) and hardwood trees (eucalyptus, aspen, birch). Wood
contains cellulose, lignin, oils, and resins, with lignin binding the cellulose fibers together. To produce
wood pulp, cellulose must be separated from lignin.
Steps in Paper Manufacturing
1. Harvesting – Trees are cut down and transported to paper mills.
2. Preparation – The bark is removed, and the wood is chipped and screened into uniform pieces.
3. Pulping – This step breaks down wood into pulp using mechanical or chemical methods.
Mechanical pulping – Uses steam, pressure, and high temperatures instead of chemicals. This process
creates short, weak fibers containing lignin, which makes the paper (e.g., newsprint) less durable.
Chemical pulping – Uses digesters (large vessels) where heat and chemicals break down lignin while
preserving cellulose fibers. Two methods are used:
Kraft Process (widely used) – Uses sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide to digest wood at 170°C for
about four hours in a basic medium.
Sulphite Process – Uses sodium bisulfate or magnesium bisulfate at 60°C for 6 to 12 hours in an acidic
medium. The resulting pulp is filtered and washed to remove chemicals and impurities.
4. Bleaching – Removes color from wood pulp and enhances brightness using oxidizing agents like
chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, or hydrogen peroxide.
5. Making Paper – The bleached pulp is converted into liquid stock and transferred to a paper mill. The
liquid is poured onto a moving screen belt, allowing excess water to drain by gravity. The continuous
paper sheet then passes through rollers that compress fibers and remove residual water, forming fine
paper.
Stages of Leather Production
1. Preparatory Stages – These steps prepare the hide for tanning:
Curing – The hide is salted or dried to prevent bacterial decay and remove excess water. Brine curing is
the quickest method.
Soaking – The cured hide is soaked in water for hours or days to remove salt, dirt, and excess fat.
Flesh Removal – Machines strip the flesh from the hide’s surface.
Hair Removal – The hide is soaked in a lime-water mixture (liming) for 1–10 days, loosening the hair,
which is then removed mechanically.
Scudding – Any remaining hair and fat are manually removed with a plastic tool or dull knife.
Deliming – Lime is removed by soaking the hide in an acidic vat, preparing it for tanning.
2. Tanning – This process converts the raw hide’s proteins into a stable material. There are two main
methods:
Vegetable (Natural) Tanning – The hide is soaked in tannin solutions from tree barks and leaves (e.g.,
chestnut, oak, acacia, mangrove). This results in flexible leather used for shoes, luggage, and furniture.
Mineral Tanning – The hide is soaked in chromium sulfate and other salts, turning the leather greenish-
blue. This faster process (24 hours) produces stretchable leather for garments and handbags.
3. Crusting – The final stage involves:
Dyeing to add color.
Rolling to strengthen the leather.
Stretching in a heat-controlled room.
Applying finishes (wax, oil, glazes) to enhance appearance and durability.
This passage explains food preservation, a process that prevents food spoilage, maintains quality, and
retains nutritional value by inhibiting microbial growth and oxidation.
Methods of Food Preservation
1. Freezing – A widely used method (commercially and domestically) to preserve various foods, including
potatoes and prepared food items.
2. Freeze-drying – Water escapes as vapor rather than liquid, preserving shape, taste, color, aroma, and
flavor. Common for coffee, tea, juices, vegetables, fish, and meat products.
3. Vacuum-packing – Food is stored in airtight bags or bottles, removing oxygen to slow bacterial growth.
Used for nuts to prevent oxidation and flavor loss
Types of Preservatives
1. Inorganic Preservatives
Sodium chloride (NaCl) – Lowers water activity, causing plasmolysis (dehydrating cells).
Nitrites and Nitrates – Used in cured meats (ham, bacon, sausage) to prevent Clostridium botu
