Unit – 1

Cellphone Generations
Mobile communication has evolved over the years through different generations (G). Each
generation represents a significant improvement in technology, speed, security, and services.

1G (First Generation)

1. Introduction: 1G was the first generation of mobile networks, introduced in the late
1970s and early 1980s. It was an analog system used for voice communication only.
2. Technology Used:
1. Analog Transmission
2. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
3. Key Features:
1. Only voice communication
2. Poor sound quality
3. No encryption (prone to eavesdropping)
4. Large, bulky phones
5. Limited capacity and coverage
4. Examples:
1. Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) – USA
2. Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) – Europe

2G (Second Generation)

1. Introduction: 2G was introduced in the early 1990s and marked the shift from analog
to digital communication.
2. Technology Used:
1. Digital Transmission
2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
3. Key Features:
1. Digital voice communication (better quality and security)
2. Short Message Service (SMS) and Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS)
3. Improved battery life
4. Data services (very slow, around 9.6–14.4 Kbps)
5. Encryption for better security
4. Examples:
1. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) – Most widely used
2. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) – Alternative to GSM

2.5G (Intermediate Between 2G and 3G)

1. Introduction: 2.5G was an enhancement to 2G before the full transition to 3G. It

introduced packet-switched data services.
2. Technology Used:
1. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
2. Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
 3. Key Features:
1. Faster data transfer than 2G (up to 384 Kbps)
2. Always-on internet connectivity
3. Introduction of WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) for mobile web
browsing
4. Still primarily used for voice and SMS

3G (Third Generation)

1. Introduction: 3G was launched in the early 2000s, introducing high-speed data

services and mobile internet.
2. Technology Used:
1. Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA)
2. High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA)
3. Key Features:
1. Speeds up to 2 Mbps
2. Video calling and streaming
3. Web browsing with decent speed
4. Global roaming
5. Mobile applications and multimedia services
4. Examples:
1. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System)
2. CDMA2000

3.5G (HSPA – High-Speed Packet Access)

Introduction:

3.5G refers to the first major upgrade of 3G networks, introducing High-Speed Packet
Access (HSPA) to significantly improve data rates.

Technology Used:

1. HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet Access) – Improves download speeds

2. HSUPA (High-Speed Uplink Packet Access) – Improves upload speeds
3. Uses WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access)
4. Maintains backward compatibility with UMTS (3G)

Key Features:

✅ Faster data speeds:

1. HSDPA: Up to 14.4 Mbps download

2. HSUPA: Up to 5.76 Mbps upload
3. ✅ Better performance for mobile internet, video streaming, and VoIP
4. ✅ Reduced network latency compared to standard 3G
Examples of Use:

1. Used in networks globally before the adoption of LTE

2. Popular during the late 2000s for mobile broadband

3.75G (HSPA+ – Evolved High-Speed Packet Access)

Introduction:

3.75G, also known as HSPA+ (Evolved HSPA), further improves HSPA by using advanced
modulation techniques.

Technology Used:

1. 16-QAM and 64-QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) to increase data rates

2. MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) for better efficiency
3. Dual Carrier (DC-HSPA+) – Uses multiple frequency bands for higher speed

Key Features:

✅ Even faster speeds than 3.5G:

1. Up to 42 Mbps (download) with DC-HSPA+

2. Up to 22 Mbps (upload)
3. ✅ More efficient spectrum usage
4. ✅ Lower latency for better real-time applications
5. ✅ Smooth transition from 3G to 4G

Examples of Use:

1. Many carriers branded HSPA+ as "4G" before LTE was available

2. Used in 2010–2013 before full LTE networks were widely deployed

3.9G (Pre-4G or LTE – Long-Term Evolution)

Introduction:

3.9G is an advanced stage between 3G and true 4G, introducing LTE (Long-Term
Evolution) but not meeting the full IMT-Advanced 4G standard.

Technology Used:

1. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) – Reduces interference and

improves spectral efficiency
2. MIMO (Multiple antennas for better transmission)
3. All-IP network – Everything runs on Internet Protocol, including voice (VoIP)
 4. Carrier Aggregation (CA) – Combines multiple frequency bands for faster speeds

Key Features:

✅ Much faster speeds than 3.75G:

1. Theoretical peak speeds up to 100 Mbps (download) and 50 Mbps (upload)

2. ✅ Lower latency (< 10ms) for real-time communication
3. ✅ More efficient than 3G networks
4. ✅ Better coverage and reliability

Why is it called 3.9G and not 4G?

1. LTE in its initial form did not meet the full ITU (International Telecommunication
Union) 4G standards.
2. True 4G LTE-Advanced (LTE-A) came later with even higher speeds and features.

Examples of Use:

1. First LTE networks were launched in 2010-2011 as a bridge between HSPA+ (3.75G)
and LTE-Advanced (True 4G)
2. Early LTE was widely used before LTE-Advanced became standard

4G Transmission Introduction

1. Introduction: 4G, introduced in the late 2000s, brought a significant leap in mobile
broadband with higher speeds and better connectivity.
2. Technology Used:
1. Long-Term Evolution (LTE)
2. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
3. Key Features:
1. High-speed data (up to 100 Mbps for mobile and 1 Gbps for stationary users)
2. Improved quality of service (QoS)
3. IP-based communication (all data and voice are packet-switched)
4. HD video streaming and VoIP services (like WhatsApp, Skype)

4G Transmission Fundamentals

4G operates on several key transmission principles:

1. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing):

1. Divides a signal into multiple smaller sub-signals
2. Improves spectral efficiency and reduces interference
2. MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output):
1. Uses multiple antennas for transmission and reception
 2. Increases data capacity and signal quality
3. All-IP Network:
1. Voice, video, and data are transmitted as IP packets
2. Enables seamless internet-based communication
4. Carrier Aggregation:
1. Combines multiple frequency bands for higher bandwidth
2. Boosts data speeds and efficiency

5G (Fifth Generation)

1. Introduction: 5G is the latest generation of mobile networks, launched in the 2020s,

designed to deliver ultra-fast speeds, low latency, and support for IoT.
2. Technology Used:
1. Millimeter Waves (mmWave)
2. Massive MIMO
3. Beamforming
4. Network Slicing
3. Key Features:
1. Speeds up to 10 Gbps
2. Latency as low as 1 ms
3. Support for massive IoT (Internet of Things)
4. High reliability for critical applications (autonomous cars, telemedicine)
5. Enhanced mobile broadband (EMBB)
4. Examples:
1. 5G NR (New Radio) – Global standard for 5G

Time Domain and Frequency Domain Concepts

1. Time Domain Concepts

What is the Time Domain?

1. The Time Domain represents how a signal changes over time.

 2. A time-domain signal is a function of amplitude vs. time (e.g., voltage, sound
waves, or electromagnetic waves).

Characteristics of Time Domain Signals:

1. Amplitude (A): The height of the signal at any point in time.

2. Period (T): The time taken for one full cycle (for periodic signals).
3. Frequency (f): The number of cycles per second (f = 1/T, measured in Hz).
4. Phase (ϕ): The shift of the waveform relative to a reference point.
5. Waveform Shape: Signals can be sinusoidal, square, triangular, or complex
waveforms.

Examples of Time Domain Signals:

1. Audio Signals: A microphone converts sound waves into an electrical signal that
varies over time.
2. Voltage and Current Signals: In electrical circuits, AC voltage fluctuates with time.
3. Wireless Signals: Electromagnetic waves from a mobile phone tower vary in strength
over time.

Limitations of the Time Domain:

1. Hard to analyze signals with multiple frequency components.

2. Not useful for understanding how signals behave in different frequency ranges.

2. Frequency Domain Concepts

What is the Frequency Domain?

1. The Frequency Domain represents a signal in terms of its frequency components

instead of time.
2. It shows how much of the signal lies within each frequency band over a range of
frequencies.
3. A frequency-domain signal is a function of amplitude vs. frequency (e.g., spectrum
of a signal).
Why Convert to the Frequency Domain?

1. Many real-world signals consist of multiple frequencies.

2. The Fourier Transform helps decompose signals into their frequency components.
3. Helps in filtering, noise reduction, and system analysis.

Examples of Frequency Domain Signals:

1. Audio Spectrum: A music file can be analyzed in frequency bands (bass, midrange,
treble).
2. Mobile Communication: 4G LTE uses different frequency bands (e.g., 700 MHz,
1800 MHz, 2600 MHz).
3. Radar and Sonar: Signals are analyzed in the frequency domain to detect objects.

3. Comparison: Time Domain vs. Frequency Domain

4. Time-Frequency Transformation: Fourier Transform & Inverse

Fourier Transform

1. The Fourier Transform (FT) converts a signal from the time domain to the
frequency domain.
2. The Inverse Fourier Transform (IFT) converts it back from the frequency domain
to the time domain.
Types of Fourier Transform:

1. Continuous Fourier Transform (CFT) – Used for continuous signals.

2. Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) – Used for discrete-time signals (e.g., digital
signals).
3. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) – An optimized version of DFT used in digital signal
processing.

Example:

1. A sine wave (time domain) corresponds to a single frequency spike (frequency

domain).
2. A square wave (time domain) corresponds to multiple harmonic frequencies
(frequency domain).

5. Practical Applications of Time and Frequency Domains

Time Domain Applications:

✅ Audio Processing – Recording and analyzing voice signals.

✅ Real-Time Monitoring – ECG heart signals, oscilloscope readings.

✅ Wireless Communication – Analyzing signal strength variations over time.

Frequency Domain Applications:

✅ Noise Reduction – Removing unwanted frequencies using filters.

✅ Data Compression – MP3 and JPEG use frequency domain techniques.

✅ Wireless and Optical Communications – LTE, Wi-Fi, and 5G rely on spectrum

analysis.

Radio Media and Analog vs. Digital Comparison

1. Radio Media

Radio media refers to the transmission and reception of audio signals through
electromagnetic waves. It is one of the earliest and most widely used forms of
communication. Radio signals can be transmitted in both analog and digital formats.

Types of Radio Media

1. AM (Amplitude Modulation) Radio – Uses analog signals, where the amplitude of

the carrier wave varies based on the audio signal.
 2. FM (Frequency Modulation) Radio – Also analog, but the frequency of the carrier
wave changes instead of amplitude, providing better sound quality.
3. Digital Radio (DAB, HD Radio, Satellite Radio, Internet Radio) – Uses digital
signals for improved clarity and efficiency.

Applications of Radio Media:

✅ Broadcasting: AM/FM radio stations, news, music, and talk shows.

✅ Communication: Walkie-talkies, two-way radios, and emergency communication.

✅ Navigation & Safety: Aviation, maritime communication, and GPS signals.

✅ Entertainment: Satellite radio and online radio streaming.

2. Analog vs. Digital Radio

1. Analog Communication

1. Analog communication uses continuous signals that vary in amplitude, frequency,

or phase to transmit information.
2. The signal directly represents the information (e.g., a voice waveform in a
telephone call).
3. Analog signals are prone to noise and interference but have been widely used in
traditional broadcasting and telephony.

Types of Analog Modulation:

Analog signals are modulated to carry information over long distances. The three primary
methods are:

A. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

1. Definition: The amplitude of the carrier wave varies according to the information
signal while frequency and phase remain constant.
2. Advantages:
1. ✅ Simple circuit design
2. ✅ Long-distance coverage
3. Disadvantages:
1. ❌ Susceptible to noise
2. ❌ Requires more power
4. Example: AM Radio (e.g., news and talk radio stations)
B. Frequency Modulation (FM)

1. Definition: The frequency of the carrier wave varies according to the information
signal while amplitude and phase remain constant.
2. Advantages:
1. ✅ Better sound quality than AM
2. ✅ More resistant to noise
3. Disadvantages:
1. ❌ Requires more bandwidth than AM
2. ❌ Limited range compared to AM
4. Example: FM Radio (e.g., music stations)

C. Phase Modulation (PM)

1. Definition: The phase of the carrier wave varies based on the message signal while
amplitude and frequency remain constant.
2. Advantages:
1. ✅ Less prone to signal distortion
2. ✅ Used in digital applications like PSK
3. Disadvantages:
1. ❌ Requires complex demodulation
4. Example: Used in satellite and mobile communication

2. Digital Communication

1. Digital communication transmits information as discrete binary signals (0s and

1s).
2. The signal is processed using modulation techniques to improve efficiency and
reliability.
3. Digital signals resist noise better than analog and allow for error correction.

Types of Digital Modulation:

To transmit digital signals over communication channels, digital modulation techniques are
used:
A. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

1. Definition: The amplitude of the carrier wave changes according to the digital signal
(0s and 1s).
2. Advantages:
1. ✅ Simple and easy to implement
3. Disadvantages:
1. ❌ Highly susceptible to noise
4. Example: Used in RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)

B. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

1. Definition: The frequency of the carrier wave changes according to the digital signal.
2. Advantages:
1. ✅ More noise-resistant than ASK
3. Disadvantages:
1. ❌ Requires more bandwidth
4. Example: Used in Bluetooth, wireless communication

C. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

1. Definition: The phase of the carrier wave changes according to the digital signal.
2. Types of PSK:
1. BPSK (Binary PSK) – 2 phase shifts (0° and 180°)
2. QPSK (Quadrature PSK) – 4 phase shifts (0°, 90°, 180°, 270°)
3. 8PSK, 16PSK, etc. – Higher phase shifts for more data
3. Advantages:
1. ✅ More efficient than FSK and ASK
2. ✅ Used in high-speed data transmission
4. Disadvantages:
1. ❌ Complex demodulation
5. Example: Used in Wi-Fi, 4G LTE, satellite communication
3. Comparison Table: Analog vs. Digital Radio
 Channel Capacity: Detailed Explanation

1. What is Channel Capacity?

1. Channel Capacity refers to the maximum data rate that can be transmitted over a
communication channel without errors.
2. It is measured in bits per second (bps) and depends on factors like bandwidth (B)
and Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR).
3. Channel capacity is critical in telecommunications, wireless communication, and data
networks.

2. Formulas for Channel Capacity

There are two primary formulas for calculating channel capacity:

A. Shannon Capacity Formula

The Shannon-Hartley Theorem provides the maximum error-free data transmission rate for
a channel affected by noise.
Key Insights from Shannon's Formula:

✅ Increased Bandwidth = Higher Capacity

✅ Higher SNR = Better Performance

✅ There is a fundamental limit beyond which errors cannot be avoided

B. Nyquist Capacity Formula (for Noiseless Channels)

When there is no noise in the channel, the Nyquist formula determines the maximum
transmission rate:

Key Insights from Nyquist's Formula:

✅ More signal levels (M) = Higher capacity

✅ Bandwidth is a limiting factor

✅ Used in ideal (noiseless) channels

3. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) in Decibels (SNRdB Formula)

SNR is often expressed in decibels (dB) using the following formula:

4. Comparison of Shannon and Nyquist Formulas

5. Practical Example of Channel Capacity Calculation

 Transmission Media and Signaling Schemes

1. What is Transmission Media?

Transmission media refers to the physical path through which data is transmitted from one
device to another in a communication system. It can be classified into guided (wired) and
unguided (wireless) media.

2. Types of Transmission Media

A. Guided Media (Wired Media)

1. Data is transmitted through a physical conductor like cables.

2. Provides high-speed and reliable communication.
3. Common types: Twisted Pair, Coaxial Cable, Fiber Optic Cable.

B. Unguided Media (Wireless Media)

1. Uses electromagnetic waves to transmit data without cables.

2. Allows mobility and flexibility but is affected by interference.
3. Common types: Radio Waves, Microwaves, Infrared.

3. Comparison: Guided vs. Unguided Media

4. Signaling Schemes
What is a Signaling Scheme?

1. A signaling scheme is the method used to represent data over a transmission medium.
2. It determines how 0s and 1s (binary data) are transmitted through physical media.

Types of Signaling Schemes

A. Analog Signaling

1. Uses continuous waveforms to transmit information.

2. Example: AM (Amplitude Modulation), FM (Frequency Modulation), PM (Phase
Modulation).
3. Used in radio, TV, and traditional telephone systems.

B. Digital Signaling

1. Uses discrete signals (0s and 1s) for data transmission.

2. Example: ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying), FSK (Frequency Shift Keying), PSK
(Phase Shift Keying).
3. Used in computer networks, optical fiber, and digital communication.
5. Types of Digital Signaling Schemes

Spread Spectrum Techniques

Spread spectrum techniques spread a signal over a wider bandwidth than necessary, making it
resistant to interference and eavesdropping. The two main types are:

A. FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

✅ The signal rapidly switches frequencies across a predefined sequence.

✅ Resistant to interference and jamming (used in military and Bluetooth).

✅ Used in Wi-Fi (802.11b), RFID, and cordless phones.

B. DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)

✅ The signal is spread using a pseudo-random noise (PN) code.

✅ Provides high security and resistance to multipath fading.

✅ Used in GPS, CDMA (3G), and Wi-Fi (802.11b/g).

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)

A technique that divides a signal into multiple closely spaced subcarriers, reducing
interference and improving efficiency.

✅ Efficient bandwidth usage by transmitting multiple parallel signals.

✅ Highly resistant to multipath fading (good for wireless and mobile networks).

✅ Used in Wi-Fi (802.11a/g/n/ac), 4G LTE, 5G, and digital TV (DVB-T).

Multiple Access Schemes

Allow multiple users to share the same communication channel without interference.

A. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

✅ Divides bandwidth into separate frequency bands for each user.

✅ Used in analog cellular (1G), satellite, and radio broadcasting.

B. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

✅ Assigns users different time slots on the same frequency.

✅ Used in 2G GSM, digital cordless phones.

C. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

✅ All users share the same frequency but use unique codes for separation.

✅ Used in 3G networks and GPS.

D. OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access)

✅ A combination of OFDM and FDMA, assigning different subcarriers to users.

✅ Used in 4G LTE, 5G, and WiMAX.

 Unit – 2
Communication Networks & Types (LAN, MAN, WAN, PAN)

1. What is a Communication Network?

A communication network is a system that enables the transfer of data, voice, or video
between devices (computers, smartphones, servers, etc.) using wired or wireless
connections. These networks vary in size, coverage area, and purpose.

Communication networks can be classified into different types based on geographical

coverage and network architecture:

1. PAN (Personal Area Network) – Small-scale (individual devices)

2. LAN (Local Area Network) – Small to medium-scale (home, office)
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) – City-wide networks
4. WAN (Wide Area Network) – Large-scale (countrywide or global)

2. Types of Communication Networks

A. PAN (Personal Area Network)

1. A small-scale network used for communication between personal devices.

2. Covers a range of 1-10 meters.
3. Used in wireless technologies like Bluetooth and Zigbee.

Example Applications:

✅ Bluetooth connections (e.g., smartphones to headsets)

✅ Smartwatch and fitness tracker communication

✅ Wireless mouse, keyboard, and printers

Advantages:

✅ Low power consumption

✅ Secure, as it connects only nearby devices

Disadvantages:

❌ Limited range

❌ Can support only a few devices

B. LAN (Local Area Network)

1. A network covering a single building or a small campus.

2. Uses wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi) connections.
3. Common in offices, schools, and homes.
4. Example Technologies: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

Example Applications:

✅ Office network for file sharing and printers

✅ Home Wi-Fi for internet access

✅ University campus networks

Advantages:

✅ Fast speed (up to 1 Gbps or higher)

✅ High security since it's a private network

Disadvantages:

❌ Limited to a small area

❌ Requires network management (for large LANs)

C. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

1. A network that connects multiple LANs across a city or a large region.

2. Used by government agencies, businesses, and ISPs.
3. Can be wired (fiber optics) or wireless (WiMAX, 5G).

Example Applications:

✅ City-wide Wi-Fi or broadband services

✅ Government communication networks

✅ University campuses spread across a city

Advantages:

✅ Covers a larger area than LAN

✅ Faster than WAN (due to fiber optic connections)

Disadvantages:

❌ More expensive than LAN

❌ Network maintenance required

D. WAN (Wide Area Network)

1. A network covering large areas, such as countries or continents.

2. Uses public and private infrastructure like satellites, fiber optics, and cellular
networks.
3. The Internet is the largest WAN.

Example Applications:

✅ The Internet (global WAN)

✅ Corporate networks across multiple locations

✅ Banking networks for ATM connectivity

Advantages:

✅ Global connectivity

✅ Can support millions of users

Disadvantages:

❌ Expensive to set up and maintain

❌ Slower than LAN or MAN due to latency

Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching

1. Circuit Switching

Circuit switching is a communication method where a dedicated path is established between

two parties before communication begins. It is mainly used in traditional telephone
networks.

How It Works:

1. A fixed communication path is established between sender and receiver.

 2. Data is transmitted as a continuous stream over this dedicated path.
3. The connection remains active until the conversation ends.

Examples:

✅ Traditional telephone calls (PSTN)

✅ ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

Advantages:

✅ Guaranteed bandwidth and low latency.

✅ No congestion once the circuit is established.

Disadvantages:

❌ Inefficient use of resources (even if no data is transmitted, the circuit remains open).

❌ Slow connection setup time.

2. Packet Switching

Packet switching divides data into small packets, which are sent individually and take
different routes to reach the destination. It is the foundation of modern internet
communication.

How It Works:

1. Data is broken into packets and each packet is given a destination address.
2. Packets travel independently across the network.
3. At the destination, packets are reassembled in the correct order.

Examples:

✅ Internet (TCP/IP networks)

✅ VoIP (Voice over IP) and online streaming

Advantages:

✅ Efficient use of bandwidth (since the channel is shared among multiple users).

✅ More reliable (if one route fails, packets take another path).
Disadvantages:

❌ Higher latency due to packet reassembly.

❌ Packets may get lost or arrive out of order.

3. Comparison Table: Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching

 ATM & Cellular Networks: Introduction & Key Concepts

1. Introduction to Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is a high-speed networking technology designed for

voice, video, and data transmission. It uses fixed-sized cells (53 bytes each) instead of
variable-sized packets, making it efficient for real-time communication like video calls and
telephony.

Key Features of ATM:

✅ Fixed-Size Cells – Each cell is 53 bytes (5-byte header + 48-byte payload).

✅ Connection-Oriented – Requires a virtual circuit to be established before transmission.

✅ QoS (Quality of Service) – Supports different service classes (CBR, VBR, ABR,
UBR).

✅ Used in High-Speed Networks – Found in broadband ISDN, DSL, and core telecom
networks.

1. ATM Adaption Layer (AAL) –

It is meant for isolating higher-layer protocols from details of ATM processes and
prepares for conversion of user data into cells and segments it into 48-byte cell
payloads. AAL protocol excepts transmission from upper-layer services and helps
them in mapping applications, e.g., voice, data to ATM cells.
2. Physical Layer –
It manages the medium-dependent transmission and is divided into two parts physical
medium-dependent sublayer and transmission convergence sublayer. The main
functions are as follows:
 It converts cells into a bitstream.
 It controls the transmission and receipt of bits in the physical medium.
 It can track the ATM cell boundaries.
 Look for the packaging of cells into the appropriate type of frames.
3. ATM Layer –
It handles transmission, switching, congestion control, cell header processing,
 sequential delivery, etc., and is responsible for simultaneously sharing the virtual
circuits over the physical link known as cell multiplexing and passing cells through an
ATM network known as cell relay making use of the VPI and VCI information in the
cell header.

2. Cellular Networks: Introduction

A cellular network is a wireless communication network divided into multiple cells, each
served by a base station. This allows for seamless communication even while moving.

Key Features of Cellular Networks:

✅ Divides a geographical area into "cells", each with a base station.

✅ Supports handover (handoff) – Allows users to move between cells without call
drops.

✅ Enables efficient frequency reuse, allowing multiple users in different cells to share the
same spectrum.

3. Cells in Cellular Networks

A cell is the basic unit of a cellular network. Each cell has a base station (BTS) that connects
users to the network.

Types of Cells:

✅ Macro Cells – Large coverage (10-30 km), used in rural areas.

✅ Micro Cells – Medium coverage (1-2 km), used in urban areas.

✅ Pico Cells – Small coverage (100-500m), used in buildings.

✅ Femto Cells – Very small (10-50m), used in homes/offices.

Cellular Frequency Reuse:

Each cell uses a specific set of frequencies and reuses them in non-adjacent cells to reduce
interference while maximizing spectrum efficiency.

4. Duplexing in Cellular Networks

Duplexing allows two-way communication between sender and receiver.

Types of Duplexing:

✅ FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing) – Uses separate frequency bands for uplink and
downlink (used in 2G, 3G, 4G).

✅ TDD (Time Division Duplexing) – Uses time slots to switch between uplink and
downlink (used in 5G, WiMAX).

5. Multiplexing in Cellular Networks

Multiplexing allows multiple users to share the same network resources.

Types of Multiplexing:

✅ FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) – Allocates different frequency bands

to users (used in 1G).

✅ TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) – Assigns different time slots to users (used
in 2G, GSM).

✅ CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) – Uses unique codes to separate users (used
in 3G).

✅ OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) – Splits frequencies into

subcarriers, used in 4G, 5G.

6. Voice Coding in Cellular Networks

Voice coding is the process of converting voice signals into digital data for transmission over
cellular networks.

Key Techniques in Voice Coding:

✅ PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) – Used in traditional telephony (PSTN).

✅ ADPCM (Adaptive Differential PCM) – Used in GSM for better compression.

✅ AMR (Adaptive Multi-Rate Codec) – Used in 3G, 4G for efficient voice

transmission.

Multiple Access Techniques: FDMA, TDMA, SDMA, CDMA

Multiple Access Techniques allow multiple users to share the same communication channel
without interference. These techniques are crucial in cellular networks to improve
efficiency, capacity, and performance.
1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

FDMA divides the available frequency spectrum into separate frequency bands, assigning
each user a unique frequency.

How FDMA Works:

1. Each user gets an exclusive frequency band during a call.

2. Used in analog and early digital networks (e.g., 1G and some 2G).
3. Suitable for continuous transmission (e.g., voice calls, radio broadcast).

Advantages of FDMA:

✅ Simple implementation.

✅ Less synchronization required.

✅ No interference between users in different frequency bands.

Disadvantages of FDMA:

❌ Wastes bandwidth (unused frequency bands remain idle).

❌ Limited capacity (fixed number of frequency slots).

❌ Not efficient for bursty data transmission.

Example Usage:

📶 1G Analog Cellular (AMPS), Satellite Communication, FM Radio

2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

TDMA divides the signal into time slots, allowing multiple users to share the same frequency
by transmitting in different time intervals.

How TDMA Works:

1. Each user is assigned a specific time slot in a cycle.

2. Used in digital cellular networks like 2G GSM and DECT (cordless phones).
3. Requires synchronization to ensure proper timing.

Advantages of TDMA:

✅ More efficient than FDMA (better spectrum utilization).

✅ Supports digital transmission and encryption.

✅ Can dynamically allocate time slots based on demand.

Disadvantages of TDMA:

❌ Requires complex synchronization.

❌ Higher power consumption due to rapid switching.

❌ Delays can occur in high traffic conditions.

Example Usage:

📶 2G GSM, Digital Cordless Phones (DECT), Military Communication

3. SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)

SDMA divides users based on their spatial location, allowing multiple users to share the
same frequency and time slot but in different geographical areas.

How SDMA Works:

1. Uses beamforming and smart antennas to direct signals to specific locations.

2. Different users in different physical locations can use the same frequency.
3. Improves network efficiency by reusing frequency across different regions.

Advantages of SDMA:

✅ Increases network capacity without needing extra bandwidth.

✅ Reduces interference by using directional antennas.

✅ Enhances performance in urban and dense environments.

Disadvantages of SDMA:

❌ Requires complex antenna technology (smart antennas, MIMO).

❌ Expensive to implement in small-scale networks.

❌ Works best in high-frequency networks (e.g., 5G).

Example Usage:

📶 5G Beamforming, Satellite Communication, Wi-Fi MIMO Systems

4. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

CDMA allows multiple users to share the same frequency and time slot, distinguishing
them using unique codes (spread spectrum technology).

How CDMA Works:

1. Each user is assigned a unique code to spread their signal.

2. Signals from multiple users overlap but remain distinguishable using codes.
3. Used in 3G networks (UMTS), GPS, and military communication.

Advantages of CDMA:

✅ More users per channel (higher capacity).

✅ Resistant to interference and eavesdropping.

✅ Soft handoff improves call quality while moving.

Disadvantages of CDMA:

❌ Complex encoding and decoding process.

❌ Requires high processing power.

❌ Prone to near-far problem (stronger signals can overpower weaker ones).

Example Usage:

📶 3G UMTS, GPS, Military Communications, CDMA2000

 Spectral Efficiency: Detailed Explanation

1. What is Spectral Efficiency?

Spectral efficiency is a measure of how efficiently a communication system utilizes the

available frequency spectrum to transmit data. It is expressed in bits per second per Hertz
(bps/Hz) and determines how much data can be transmitted within a given bandwidth.

Where:

1. Data Rate (bps) = The amount of information transmitted per second.

2. Bandwidth (Hz) = The range of frequencies used for transmission.

2. Importance of Spectral Efficiency

✅ Maximizes Data Transmission – Allows more users and higher data rates within
limited spectrum.

✅ Reduces Network Congestion – More efficient use of bandwidth reduces interference

and congestion.

✅ Essential for Wireless Communication – Crucial in cellular networks (4G, 5G), Wi-
Fi, and satellite communications.

3. Factors Affecting Spectral Efficiency

📌 Modulation Scheme – Higher-order modulation (e.g., QAM, PSK) improves efficiency.

📌 Multiple Access Techniques – CDMA, OFDMA, SDMA allow efficient spectrum

sharing.

📌 Channel Conditions – Noise, interference, and fading impact spectral efficiency.

📌 Antenna Technologies – MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) boosts efficiency.

5. Techniques to Improve Spectral Efficiency
1⃣ Higher-Order Modulation (QAM, PSK)

1. Example: 256-QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) allows more bits per

symbol, increasing efficiency.
2. Trade-off: Requires higher signal quality (SNR) to avoid errors.

2⃣ MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output)

1. Uses multiple antennas to send/receive multiple data streams simultaneously.

2. Example: 4x4 MIMO in 4G LTE, Massive MIMO in 5G.
3. Benefit: Increases data rate without extra bandwidth.

3⃣ OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access)

1. Splits spectrum into small subcarriers, each carrying data for multiple users.
2. Used in: 4G LTE, 5G NR, Wi-Fi 6.

4⃣ Beamforming

1. Focuses signals directly toward users instead of broadcasting in all directions.

2. Used in: 5G, Wi-Fi 6E for higher spectral efficiency.