Fill-in proof 1 Formula for choosing objects

We are going to demonstrate that...

⎛ n⎞ n!
The number of ways of choosing r objects out of n , ⎜ ⎟ = .
⎝ ⎠ n !(n − r )!
r
You need to know...
• there are n! ways to permute n objects (Theorem 1)
• the product principle: n A AND B ( ) n ( A) n(B) (Theorem 2).

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.
For some lines you may simply refer to Theorem 1 or 2.
Approach Reasons
1 Let’s count the number of ways of arranging n objects in an Setting up the
unusual way: proof
Select r of the objects (x ways)
AND
Permute those r objects (y ways)
AND
Permute the remaining objects (z ways)
x is the quantity we are trying to find.
2 The total number of ways of doing this is n! Theorem 1
3 But we can also think of it as x × y × z Theorem 2
4 where y = r! Theorem 1
5 and z = (n − r)! Theorem 1
6 So we can form the equation n! = x × r! × (n − r)! Theorem 2
7 Rearranging this gives
n!
x=
r !(n − r )!

Which completes the proof.

Questions for reflection
1. Is the definition that 0 ! 1 consistent with the result for the number of ways of selecting
no objects out of n?

2. This proof utilises what is called the overcounting principle. Can you see why it might be
called that?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 1 Formula for choosing objects 1
3. Try to construct a similar proof to show that the number of ways of arranging n objects in
which there is a set of a identical objects, another set of b identical objects and a third set of
n!
c identical objects (as well as some other distinguishable objects) is . Hence find the
a !b ! c !
number of arrangements of the letters in the word MISSISSIPI.

4. Try to show that the number of ways of arranging n objects in a circle is (n – 1)!

⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n ⎞
5. Prove that ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ .
⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ n r ⎟⎠
Can you interpret this result in terms of counting arguments?

⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n − 1⎞ ⎛ n − 1⎞
6. Prove that ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ + .
⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ r − 1⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠
Can you interpret this result in terms of counting arguments?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 1 Formula for choosing objects 2
 Fill-in proof 2 Proving log rules
We are going to demonstrate that...
log l g a x + log
log l ay

You need to know...

• the definition of logarithms: b a x ⇒ x g a b (Theorem 1)
• the law of exponents stating am an = am+n (Theorem 2)

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line. For some
lines you may simply refer to Theorem 1 or 2.
Approach Reasons
1 Let x am and y an Theorem 1
Then m log a x and n lo y
2 Let z xxy
3 ∴ z = a m × a n = a m+ n Theorem 2
4 ⇒ l ga z = m + n Theorem 1
5 ∴ log ( ) = logg a x + log
lo a y Substituting from previous lines

Questions for reflection

1. At what point does this proof break down for a = 1 ?

2. Does this proof demonstrate that log( −1 × −1) log( ) ?

3. Give an example to show why the implication in the fourth line only goes in one direction.

x
3. Use the fact that am an = am n
to prove that log log a x log
lo a y.
y

4. Use the fact that ( )n am×n to prove that log log a x.

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 2 Proving log rules 1
 Fill-in proof 3 Proving the quadratic formula
We are going to demonstrate that...

−bb b2 − 4ac
If ax 2 + bx + c = 0 then x =
2a
You need to know...
• how to complete the square.

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.
Approach Reasons

1 ax 2 + bx + c = 0

b c
2 ⇒ x2 + x + = 0 Dividing by a
a a
2
⎛ b⎞ b2 c
3 ⇔ x+ − 2 + =0 Completing the square
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a a
2
⎛ b⎞ b2 c
4 ⇔ x+ = 2− Isolating the square
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a a
b − ac
5 ⇔ = Writing the RHS over a common denominator
4a 2
b b ac
6 ⇔ x+ =± Undoing the squaring
2a 4a 2

b − ac
7 ⇔ =± Simplify the square root
2a
b b ac
8 ⇔ x=− ± Isolating x
2a 2a
−b ± b2 − 4ac
=
2a
Questions for reflection
1. At what point does this proof break down when a = 0?

2. At stage 6 are we saying that 4a2 2a? If so, are we assuming that a is positive?

3. Can this method be extended to form a general solution to ax 3 + bx

b 2 + cx + d = 0?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 3 Proving the quadratic formula 1
 Fill-in proof 4 Arithmetic series and the story of Gauss

Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855)

Carl Gauss was amongst the most eminent mathematicians of the
19th century. His many contributions included great strides in number
theory, statistics and physics. He was a child prodigy and there is a famous
legend about a lesson where his teacher was hoping to keep him quiet by
asking him to add together all of the numbers from1 to 100. The teacher was
somewhat disappointed when he replied with the correct answer within seconds. It is believed
that he applied a procedure similar to the one used in this proof.

We are going to demonstrate that...

n
n =
2
( u + n − d)
You need to know...
• the definition of an arithmetic series
• that the nth term of an arithmetic series is u1 + (n − 1) d .

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.
Approach Reasons
1 Sn [[u
u ] + [u
[u1 d] + …+ u1 + (n − )d [u
u1 + (n )d] Definition of Sn
1  
n terms

2 ⇔ Sn [
u1 + (n )d] + [u
[u1 + (n − 2)d] … [u

u1 + d] [u
u1 ]
 Reversing the order of
n terms the sum does not change
the answer
3 ∴ 2Sn [
2u1 + (n 1 d] [2u
2 1 + (n − 1)d] … [2u1 + (n 1)d]
  Adding the first two
n terms expressions, combining
terms in the square
brackets
4 ⇔ 2Sn n (2u
2u1 + n − 1 d ) Collecting like terms

n
5 ⇔ Sn =
2
( u + n − d) Dividing by 2

Question for reflection

1. Can you use this method to find the sum of all the numbers from 1 to 100?

2. Use this formula to show that the sum of the first n odd numbers is n2. Can you explain
this result in any other ways? Try using diagrams. Which proof is ‘best’?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 4 Arithmetic series and the story of Gauss 1
 Fill-in proof 5 Self-similarity and geometric series
We are going to demonstrate that...

u1 (r n − 1)
Sn =
r −1
You need to know...
• the definition of a geometric series
• that the nth term of a geometric series is u, rn−1

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.
Approach Reasons
1 Sn u1 + u1r + u1r 2 + …+ u1r n 2 + u1r n−1 (1) Definition of Sn
2 ⇔ rSn = u1r + u1r 2 + u1r 3 + …+ u1r n 1 + u1r n (2) Multiplying both sides by r
3 ∴ rSn − Sn u1r n u1 (2)-(1), eliminating identical terms
4 ⇔ Sn (r − 1) = u1 (r n − 1) Factorising both sides
u1 (r n − )
5 ⇒ Sn = Dividing by r −1
r −1

Questions for reflection

1. This proof does not work when r = 1.
At which stage does it break down? What is the formula for Sn when r = 1?

2. Does this proof work when r = −1? Can you find a simplified version of the formula in
this case?

3. This proof appeals to the very important mathematical idea of self-similarity – looking to
get similar structures in two different ways, so that things cancel out. Use this idea to evaluate:

(a) 1 1 11+ …
1
(b)
2
1+
2
1+
1+…

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 5 Self-similarity and geometric series 1
 Fill-in proof 6 Remainder theorem
We are going to demonstrate that...

f (x) r
If ≡ q (x) + where q(x ) is a polynomial, then r f (x ).
x a x a
You need to know...
• the definition of a polynomial
• the meaning of the word ‘identity’.

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
f (x) r
1 ≡ q (x) + Definition of an algebraic remainder
x a x a

2 ⇒ f ( x ) ≡ ( x a)q ( x ) + r Multiplying both sides by x a

3 ⇔ f (a ) = (a a ) q (a ) + r Choosing a useful value of x

4 ⇔ f (a ) = r

Questions for reflection

1. Where in the proof is it important that q(x ) is a polynomial? Does f x)
x have to be a
polynomial?

2. Why did we need to multiply by ( ) at stage 2 rather than substitute in x a in stage 1?

This highlights an issue with this proof. To get around this the remainder is defined using

f (x ) ≡ (x a )q (x ) + r .

3. Adapt the proof above to find the remainder when f x)

x is divided by (b ).

4. The factor theorem states that if f (a ) = 0 then f x)

x has a factor of ( ). Show that this
follows directly from the remainder theorem.

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 6 Remainder theorem 1
 Fill-in proof 7 Linking the binomial expansion and
counting principles
We are going to demonstrate that...

⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n ⎞ n− ⎛ n⎞ n
(a b ) = ⎜ ⎟ an + ⎜ ⎟ a b1 + ⎜ ⎟ a b2 + …+ ⎜
n
a b n 1
+ ⎜⎝ n⎟⎠ b
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ n − 1⎟⎠
You need to know...
• how to manually expand brackets
⎛ n⎞
• that the number of ways of choosing r objects out of n is ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ r⎠
Proof
Fill in the missing expressions to explain what is being done in each line.
1 Think about what happens when you expand a set of brackets:
b )(a b )(a b )…(a + b )
(a
1 2 3 n
We shall focus on the case when n = 4 to show the structure of the proof.
2 One way of thinking about the expansion is that it will be the sum of every possible
product formed by picking one element from each bracket and multiplying them
together. There is only one way of getting a 4:
( a + )()( a + b))(( a + ))(( a + )
There are four different ways to get a b :

(a + )()( a + ))(( a + )(a b )

(a + )()( a + )( + b ))(( a + )
(a )( b )( a + )()( a + )
(a + )( + b)( b)( b)
Each of these ways contribute an a b term so in the final expansion there will be 4a3b.
3 This coefficient occurred because we can pick 3 brackets to take an ‘a’ from (and then
⎛ 4⎞
be left with one to take a ‘b’ from) in ⎜ ⎟ different ways.
⎝ 3⎠

In general, if we are expanding (a b ) to get the term in a bn−r we need to pick

n
4
⎛ n⎞
r brackets to get ‘a’ from. This can be done in ⎜ ⎟ different ways, so in the final
⎝ r⎠
⎛ n⎞
expansion there will be ⎜ ⎟ a bn−r .
⎝ r⎠

5 We can do this for any integer value of r from 0 to n, and all of these terms add
together to give the required result.

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 7 Linking the binomial expansion... 1
 This ‘proof’ is far less algebraic than many proofs you will have seen. Is it a
proof or an explanation? What is the difference between proof and explanation
in mathematics?

Questions for reflection

1. Where in the proof is it important that n is a positive integer?

2. Can you extend this proof to prove a formula for the trinomial expansion (a b + c ) ?
n

3. By considering a geometric series, can you find an infinitely long expansion for (1 − x ) ?
n

Does it always work?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 7 Linking the binomial expansion... 2
 Fill-in proof 8 Cosine rule
We are going to demonstrate that...
c2 a2 + b ab C

You need to know...

adjacent
• the use of cosine in right-angled triangles: cosθ = (Theorem 1)
hypotenuse
opposite
• the use of sine in right-angled triangles: sinθ = (Theorem 2)
hypotenuse

• Pythagoras’ theorem in a right-angled triangle: c 2 a 2 + b2 (Theorem 3)

• the Pythagorean identity sin2 θ cos2 θ ≡ 1. (Theorem 4)

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line. You may
refer to Theorem 1, 2, 3 or 4.

Approach Reasons
1 Drawing a diagram
A
representing a general
triangle

c b

B a C

2 Draw AD perpendicular to BC Split the diagram into

right-angled triangles
A

c b

B a D C

3 In triangle ADC we can express the remaining two sides in

terms of b and C:
CD = b C Theorem 1
4 AD = b C Theorem 2

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 8 Cosine rule 1
5 In triangle BDA we can now deduce that
BD = a b cos C Total length is of BC is a
6 But BDA is a right-angled triangle so
c (b sinC )2 (a − b s C )2 Theorem 3
7 =b C + a2 − ab C +b C Expanding brackets
8 = a + b2 − 2abb cos C Theorem 4
Questions for reflection
1. What assumptions have been made in drawing the triangle in stage one? Does this proof
apply only to this particular triangle? Are there any other cases that need to be considered?

2. Derive similar proofs for these other cases to show that the cosine rule applies for all triangles.

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 8 Cosine rule 2
 Fill-in proof 9 Double angle cosine formula
We are going to demonstrate that...
cos 2 1 2 sin2 x

You need to know...

opposite
• the use of sine in right-angled triangles: sinθ = (Theorem 1)
hypotenuse
• the cosine rule: c 2 a2 + b ab C (Theorem 2)

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line. You may
refer to Theorem 1 or 2.

Approach Reasons
1 Drawing a diagram with two
B
identical isosceles right-angled
triangles
x x

a a

A b C

2 Considering just one right-angled triangle we can

write the base side in terms of a:
b
= a in x Theorem 1
2
3 ⇔ b 2a sin x (1) Multiplying by 2

4 Considering the large triangle again we can write the

base in terms of a:
b a2 + a2 2a 2a a 2x Theorem 2
5 = 2a2 (1 − 2 c 2 x ) Factorising

6 ⇔ (2a in x )2 2a2 (1
2a s 2x
2 ) Substituting in (1)

7 ⇔ 4a 2 n 2 x 22aa2 (1 s 2x
2 ) Expanding bracket

8 ∴2 sin2 x 1 cos 2 x We can divide by 2a2 since a ≠ 0

9 cos 2 x 1 2 sin
in2 x Rearranging

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 9 Double angle cosine formula 1
Questions for reflection
1. What assumptions have been made in drawing the triangle in stage one? What type of
angles does this proof apply to?

2. Use the identity sin2 x cos

c 2 x ≡ 1 to deduce the identities:

cos2 x 2 cos2 x − 1
and
cos 2 x c 2 x − sin2 x
cos

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 9 Double angle cosine formula 2
 Fill-in proof 10 Sine compound angle formula
We are going to demonstrate that...

sin( x + y ) cos y sin x + cos x sin y

You need to know...

adjacent
• the use of cosine in right-angled triangles: cosθ = (Theorem 1)
hypotenuse
1
• the area of a triangle: area = ab sin C . (Theorem 2)
2
Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line. You may
refer to Theorem 1 or 2.

Approach Reasons
1 C Drawing a diagram with
two right-angled triangles
x with the same height.
y

a h b

B D A

2 Considering the left right-angled triangle we can write the Theorem 1

height in terms of a and x:
h x

3 By symmetry we can write h in terms of b and y:

h b cos y
4 The area of the left-hand triangle is: Theorem 2
1
a (b cos y ) × in x
2
5 The area of the right-hand triangle is: Theorem 2
1
b (a cos x ) × in y
2
6 The area of the whole triangle is: Theorem 2
1
ab sin( x + y )
2
7 But the total area is the sum of the two smaller triangles:
1 1 1
ab sin( x + y)
y) abb cos y sin x + abb cos x sin y
2 2 2
1
8 ⇒ i ( x + y ) = cos y sin
i x + cos x sin y Dividing by ab
2
This is the required result.

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 10 Sine compound angle formula 1
Questions for reflection
1. For any pair of acute angles x and y can we always draw two right-angled triangles with the
same height?

2. Is the argument ‘by symmetry’ in stage 3 valid?

3. Given that cos ( θ ) cosθ and sin ( θ ) sinθ , use a substitution y z to show that
sin( x z ) sin x cos z cos x sin
i z.

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 10 Sine compound angle formula 2
 Fill-in proof 11 Cosine compound angle formula
We are going to demonstrate that...
cos( x + y ) cos x coss y sin x sin
in y

You need to know...

• the compound angle sine identity:
sin( x y ) cos y sin x cos x sin y (Theorem 1)
• the complementary angle identities:
π
sin ⎛ θ⎞ cosθ (Theorem 2)
⎝2 ⎠
π
cos ⎛ θ⎞ sinθ (Theorem 3)
⎝2 ⎠
• a simple algebraic identity:
A (B + C ) ( A − B) C (Theorem 4)

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line. You may
refer to Theorem 1, 2, 3 or 4.

Approach Reasons
π
1 cos ( + y ) sin ⎛ − ( x + y )⎞ Theorem 3
⎝2 ⎠

⎛ π ⎞
2 = sin ⎛ − x ⎞ − y Theorem 4
⎝⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠

π π
3 = cos y sin ⎛ − x ⎞ − cos ⎛ − x ⎞ sin y Theorem 1
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠

π
4 c x − cos ⎛ − x ⎞ sin y
= cos y cos Theorem 2
⎝2 ⎠

5 = cos y cos
c x − sin x sin y Theorem 3

Questions for reflection

1. Given that cos ( θ ) cosθ and sin ( θ ) sinθ , use a substitution y z to show that
cos( x z ) cos x cos z + sin x sin
i z.

2. Does setting x y provide a proof that cos 2 x c 2 x − sin2 x ?

cos

3. Does this proof apply to obtuse angles? Reflex angles?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 11 Cosine compound angle formula 1
 Fill-in proof 12 Deriving the scalar product
We are going to demonstrate that...
( 1b1 + 2b2 + 3b3 )
cos θ =
a| |

You need to know...

• the geometric interpretation of vectors
• the component form of vectors
• the cosine rule:
a b2 − c 2
cosC = (Theorem 1)
2ab
• the modulus of a vector in component form:

⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜ a ⎟ = a2 + a2 + a2 (Theorem 2)
⎜ 2⎟ 1 2 3
⎜⎝ a3 ⎟⎠

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line. You may
refer to Theorem 1 or 2.

Approach Reasons
1 B Geometric property of vectors

θ
C a A
   
CA = a, CB = b, so AB = b − a.

⎛ a1 ⎞ ⎛ b1 ⎞ ⎛ b1 − a1 ⎞
2 If a = a2 and b = b2 then b a = ⎜ b2 − a2 ⎟ .
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ Component property of vectors
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ a3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ b3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ b3 − a3 ⎟⎠

3 In this triangle we have Theorem 1

2 2
a + b − b−a
2
cosθ =
2a b

4 a 2 = a12 + a22 + a32 Theorem 2

2
b = b12 + b22 + b32

b a =( −
2
)2 + ( − )2 + ( − )2

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 12 Deriving the scalar product 1
 2 2
5 a2 b −b a = Algebraic simplification
a12 + a22 + a32 + b1 b2 b32 −
(b1 a1b1 b12 ) (b2 a2b2 b22 ) −
(b32 − 2 3 3 + 32 )
= 2( 1b1 + 2b2 + 3b3 )

2( 1b1b 3b3 ) Substituting into expression for

6 cosθ = 2 2

2a | | cosθ
( b b b)
= 11 2 2 3 3
a| |

Questions for reflection

1. Which would you say is the definition of the scalar product:

(a) a.bb b cosθ

ab
(b) = cosθ
a b
(c) a b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 ?

Is mathematics about defining something and then investigating its properties or defining
something because it has a use?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 12 Deriving the scalar product 2
 Fill-in proof 13 Deriving the vector product
We are going to demonstrate that...

⎛ a2b3 − a3b2 ⎞
a b = ⎜ a3b1 − a1b3 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ a1b2 − a2b1 ⎟⎠

You need to know...

• the component form of vectors
• the definition of the vector product: a b = a b sinθ n where n is a unit vector in the direction
perpendicular to both a and b and in a sense given by the right hand rule.
• the system of basis vectors i, j and k: (0, 0, 1)

(0, 1, 0)
k

(1, 0, 0)
O i
• The following properties of the vector product:
a b = −b
b a (Theorem 1)
a (b + c ) = a × b b × c (Theorem 2)
a×a =0 (Theorem 3)
Theorem 1 follows from the definition of the direction of the vector product.
Theorem 3 is true because sin(0) 0 .
The proof of Theorem 2 requires further knowledge of vectors, so we will accept it without proof.

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
1 Write a and b in terms of the unit base vectors i, j, k:
a 1i + a2 j + a3 k
b = b1 + b2 j + b3 k
2 a b = a1 b1i + b2 j + b3 k ) Theorem 2
+a2 j b1i + b2 j + b3 k )
+a3 b1i + b2 j + b3 k )
3 =( ) (i × i ) + ( ) (i × j ) + ( )( × ) Theorem 2
+( )( j × i ) + ( )( j × j ) + ( )( j × k )
+( )( × )+( )( × j) + ( )( × )
4 i i=0 Theorem 3

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 13 Deriving the vector product 1
 π
5 i j = i j sin ×k Definition of vector product
2
=k
6 ∴ j × i = −k Theorem 1
7 Completing the table below in a similar fashion gives:
Second
i j k
i 0 k j
First j −k 0 i
k j i 0
Therefore Using results from table
a b = ( a b ) k + (a b ) ( − j ) + (a b ) ( − ) +
(a b ) i + (a b ) j + (a b ) ( − i )
=( − )i + ( − ) j + ( − )k Factorising

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 13 Deriving the vector product 2
 Fill-in proof 14 Solutions to real polynomials
We are going to demonstrate that...
If z is a solution of a polynomial with real coefficients then z* is also a solution.

You need to know...

• ( zw )* = z *w * (Theorem 1)
• ( z + w )* = z * + w * (Theorem 2)
• ( z n )* ( z )n (Theorem 3)

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
1 We start off by defining a polynomial function, Setting up the problem
f xx), of order n with real coefficients. algebraically
The coefficient of x r is ar ,
so f ( x ) = an x n + an−1x n−1 …+ a1x + a0 .
If z is a solution to f ( x ) = 0 then
an z n + an−1z n 1 … + a1z + a0 = 0.
We need to establish from this that f ( z * ) = 0.
2 ⇔ (anz n + an zn …+ a z + a )* = 0* Taking complex conjugates of
both sides
3 ⇔ (anz n + an z n … + a z + a )* = 0 Since 0 is real 0* 0
4 ⇔ (anz n )* + (an z n )* …+ (a1z )* + a0* = 0 Theorem 2
an* ( z n ) + (an* ) ( z n ) …+ a1* z * + a0* = 0
* *
5 ⇔ Theorem 1
an ( z n ) + (an−1 ) ( z n ) …+ a1z * + a0 = 0
* *
6 ⇔ Since the coefficients are real
an ( z * ) + an −1 ( z * )
n n −1
7 ⇔ + …a1z * + a0 = 0 Theorem 3
8 ⇔ f (z * ) = 0

Questions for reflection

1. Which stage means that this proof is only valid for polynomials with real coefficients?

2. Could this proof be extended to rational functions? How about any function?

3. Does this proof mean that there will always be an even number of solutions to a real
polynomial?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 14 Solutions to real polynomials 1
 Fill-in proof 15 Differentiating polynomials
We are going to demonstrate that...
d n
dx
( x ) nx n −1 and that
d
dx
(
g (x ) + h(x ) =
d
dx
)
g (x ) +
d
dx
(
h(x ) ) ( )
You need to know...
f ( + ) − f (x )
• differentiation from first principles: f ′ x ) = lim (Theorem 1)
h→0 h
n
⎛ n⎞
• the binomial expansion: (a b ) = ∑ ⎜ ⎟ a bn −r
n
(Theorem 2)
r
r =0 ⎝ ⎠

⎛ n⎞ n!
• the formula for binomial coefficient: ⎜ ⎟ = (Theorem 3)
⎝ r ⎠ r !(n − r )!

Proof 1
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
1 If f ( x ) = x n Theorem 1

f ′(
( + )n
− xn
) = lim
h→0 h
⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n⎞ n ⎛ n⎞
x n + ⎜ ⎟ x n − h + ⎜ ⎟ x n − h2 + ∑ r = 3 ⎜ ⎟ hr x n −r − x n
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ r⎠
2 = lim Theorem 2
h→0 h
⎛ n⎞ n− ⎛ n⎞ n − 2 n ⎛ n⎞
⎜⎝ 1⎟⎠ x h + ⎜⎝ 2⎟⎠ x h + ∑ r =3 ⎜ r ⎟
⎝ ⎠
hr x n −r
3 = lim Cancelling xn
h→0 h

n ( − ) n− 2 n ⎛ n⎞
nx n −1h + x h + ∑ r = 3 ⎜ ⎟ hr x n −r
2 ⎝ r⎠
4 = lim Theorem 3
h→0 h

⎛ n ( − ) n− n
⎛ n⎞ ⎞
5 = li nx n 1 + x h + ∑ ⎜ ⎟ hr − x n −r ⎟ Dividing top and
h→0 ⎝ 2 r
r =3 ⎝ ⎠ ⎠ bottom by h

6 = nx n −1 Taking the limit

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 15 Differentiating polynomials 1
Questions for reflection
1. Why could we not take the limit until stage 6?

2. Why do all the terms represented by the sigma notation go to zero in the limit?

3. For what values of n is this proof valid? At what stage in the proof is this restriction required?

4. You may want to extend the proof to show that it is also true for negative n (when you’ve
learnt the product rule) and rational n (when you’ve learnt implicit differentiation). Real n
will need some university-level mathematics!

Proof 2
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
1 If ( x ) = g ( x ) + h(x ) Theorem 1

g( + ) + h( + ) − ( ( ) + ( ))
f ′( ) = lim
h→0 h

2 = lim
( ( + ) − ( )) + ( ( + ) − ( ))
Rearranging
h→0 h

g ( x + h) − g ( ) h ( x + h) − h ( )
3 = lim + lim Separating the fractions
h→ h h→0 h

4 = g ′( ) + h′(′ x) Theorem 1

Questions for reflection

d
1. Can you combine the results to prove that
dx
(ax n ) = anx n−1?
2. Can you further prove that all polynomials can be differentiated in this fashion?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 15 Differentiating polynomials 2
 Fill-in proof 16 Small angle approximations
We are going to demonstrate that...

sinθ θ
when θ is small and in radians.

You need to know...

1
• the formula for the area of a triangle: base × height (Theorem 1)
2
1
• the formula for the area of a triangle: ab sin C (Theorem 2)
2
1 2
• the formula for the area of a sector: r θ (Theorem 3)
2
• cosθ ≈ 1 when θ is very small (Theorem 4)
opposite
• in a right-angled triangle tanθ = (Theorem 5)
adjacent
sinθ
• tanθ = (Theorem 6)
cosθ
Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
1 Consider this diagram.
C
A

r
h

θ
O B
r

1 2
2 The area of the triangle OAB = r sinθ Theorem 2
2

3 The height h r tanθ Theorem 5

1 2
4 The area of the triangle OCB
C r tanθ Theorem 1
2
1 2
5 The area of the sector OAB rθ Theorem 3
2

6 From the diagram in terms of areas:

triangle OAB sector OAB < triangle OCB
C
1 1 1
7 ∴ r 2 s θ < r 2θ < r 2 tanθ
2 2 2

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 16 Small angle approximations 1
 1 2
8 ⇒ i θ < θ < tanθ Dividing by r
2
θ 1
9 ⇒ 1< < Dividing by sinθ and
sinθ θ using Theorem 6

10 In the limit as θ gets very small cosθ ≈ 1 Theorem 4

θ
1 1
sinθ
θ
11 If is squeezed between 1 and 1 then θ θ
sinθ

Questions for reflection

1. Does the radius of the circle drawn in stage 1 affect the proof?

2. Is the statement made in stage 6 true for all possible diagrams? What about all values of θ ?

3. At which stage in the proof is it important that θ is in radians? Find a small angle
approximation for sinθ when θ is in degrees. You may want to use this result to find the
derivative of sin x when x is in degrees.

4. Why is it justified to say that cosθ ≈ 1 but we do not use the approximation sinθ ≈ 0? Use
the small angle sine approximation to find an improved small angle approximation to
cosθ up to a quadratic term.

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 16 Small angle approximations 2
 Fill-in proof 17 Differentiating trigonometric functions
We are going to demonstrate that...
d
dx
(sin x ) c (x )
You need to know...
f( + ) − f (x )
• differentiation from first principles: f ′ x ) = lim (Theorem 1)
h→0 h
• small angle approximations: sin x x and cos x ≈ 1 (Theorem 2)
• compound angle formula: sin ( A B ) = sin
si A coss B + sin B cos A (Theorem 3)

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
d sin ( x h ) sin x
1 (sin x ) lim Theorem 1
dx h →0 h

sin x cos h + si h cos x − sin x

2 = lim Theorem 3
h→0 h

1 × sin + h × cos x − sin x

3 = lim Theorem 2
h→0 h

h cos x
4 = lim Cancelling sin x
h→0 h

5 = lim cos x Cancelling h

h→0

6 = cos x Taking the limit

Questions for reflection

d
1. Apply the above method to prove that
dx
(cos x ) in x.

2. Where in the proof is it important that x is in radians?

3. sin x is only approximately equal to x, so why are we justified in using an exact equals sign
in stage 3?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 17 Differentiating trigonometric functions 1
 Fill-in proof 18 Differentiating logarithmic functions
graphically
We are going to demonstrate that...
d 1
( ln x ) =
dx x
You need to know...
• ln x and ex are inverse functions (Theorem 1)
• that the graphs of inverse functions are reflections in the line y = x (Theorem 2)
• the gradient of any point on the graph of y = ex is the same as the y-coordinate (Theorem 3)
change in y
• the gradient of a straight line is (Theorem 4)
change in x
Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
1 Consider the graphs of y = ex and y = ln x
y

y = ex
x

y = ln x

2 Focus on the point (x, ln x). We shall call the gradient

at this point m.
We can draw a triangle with part of the tangent making
explicit that the gradient is m. Theorem 4
y

m
1
x

y = ln x

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 18 Differentiating logarithmic functions 1
3 We can then look at the reflection of this curve in the line Theorem 1
y = x. It produces the curve y = ex and
y Theorem 2
m

m
y = ex
1
x

y = ln x

4 The gradient is the same as the y-coordinate, which is x Theorem 3

1
5 But the gradient in terms of m is Theorem 4
m

1
6 ∴m = Taking the limit
x

Questions for reflection

1. Apply the above method to prove that
d
dx
( x ) = 2 1x .
2. When you learn a technique called implicit differentiation you will be able to prove this in
a significantly easier way. When you meet implicit differentiation try it.

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 18 Differentiating logarithmic functions 2
 Fill-in proof 19 Integration from first principles
We are going to demonstrate that...
a3
The area under the graph of y x 2 from 0 to a is .
3
You need to know...
n
n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
• ∑r 2
=
6
(Theorem 1)
1

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
1 The area can be approximated by splitting it into lots of
rectangles each with width Δx:
y
y = x2

x
a
Δx

a
2 There will be of these rectangles
Δx
3 The rth such rectangle will have the right edge of the rectangle
at x = r Δx and will have height y r2 ( x)
2

Therefore it will have area r 2 ( Δx )

3
4 Area of a rectangle

5 The total area will be approximately:

a
r=
Δx

∑r 2
( x )3
r =1
a
r=
Δx
=( )3 ∑r Since ( Δx ) is a constant
3
6 2

r =1 over the sum

a ⎞⎛ a a
( )3 ⎛⎝ ⎠ ⎝
+ 1⎞ ⎛ 2
⎠ ⎝
+ 1⎞
7 = Δx Δx Δx ⎠ Theorem 1
6
a ⎞ ⎛ a + Δx ⎞ ⎛ 2a + Δx ⎞
( )3 ⎛⎝
Δx ⎠ ⎝ Δx ⎠ ⎝ Δx ⎠
8 = Writing each bracket over
6 a single denominator

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 19 Integration from first principles 1
 a( + )( a + Δx )
9 = Simplifying
6
10 The approximation becomes exact as Δx gets very small:
a( + )( + )
area = lim
Δx →0 6
a (a + 0) (2a + 0)
=
6
a3
=
3

Questions for reflection

1. We can approximate the area using rectangles that lie strictly below the curve. Does this
produce the same result?

a
2. Use this proof to explain why the notation for this integration is ∫ y dx.
0

3. (Hard) By considering lots of squares of dimensions Δx by Δy

Δ show that the area can also
be thought of as
i=
a
⎛ j = Δyyy ⎞
Δx

∑ ⎜⎜ ∑ Δyy⎟⎟ Δx .
i =1 ⎜ j=j 1 ⎟⎠
⎝

Finding an area by integration is really finding a double integral:

x a y f (x )
∫ ∫
x =0 y =0
dA

Double and triple integrals have many uses in physics and engineering. For example, have a
look at how they can be used to find the centre of mass of a non-uniform shape.

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 19 Integration from first principles 2
 Fill-in proof 20 Fundamental theorem of calculus
We are going to demonstrate that...
The process of finding the area under a graph is the opposite of differentiation.

You need to know...

dy Δyy
• = lim (Theorem 1)
dx Δx → 0 Δx
Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
1 Consider the area under the graph y = f (x) between a and x.
By changing the upper limit, x, we will change the area:
y

y = f(x)

A f (x) ΔA

a x
x
0
Δx

2 If the change in x is very small, the new area can be approximated

by a rectangle with area:
ΔA f ( x ) Δx
ΔA
3 ⇔ ≈ f( )
Δx
ΔA dA
A
4 In the limit, f ( x ) = lim = . Theorem 1
Δx →0 Δx dx
5 Interpreting this: f (x) is the derivative of A with respect to x so to
find A we must find a function that differentiates to give f (x).

Questions for reflection

4 3
1. The volume of a sphere is V πr .
3
dV
Find and see if you can find out what the resulting formula gives. Can you interpret
dr
this geometrically?

2. How would we have to adapt the proof above if f ( x ) < 0?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 20 Fundamental theorem of calculus 1
 Fill-in proof 21 Product rule
We are going to demonstrate that...
d dv du
dx
( uv ) = u
dx
+v
dx
You need to know...
dy Δyy
• = lim (Theorem 1)
dx Δx →0 Δx
• the convention that Δ a means a small change in a.

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
1 Let y = uv where u, v are functions of the independent Setting up the problem
variable x. If x changes by a small amount (Δ x) our new
independent variable is going to be x + Δx.
But u, v and y will also be affected.
2 u will become u + Δu
v will become v + Δv
y will become y + Δy
3 But we can also use the link between y, u and v:
y + Δy = (u + u ) (v + Δv )
4 = uv + v Δu + uΔv + ΔuΔv Expanding brackets

5 ∴ Δy = v Δu + uΔv + ΔuΔv Since y = uv

6 Δy Δu Δv Δv Dividing both sides by Δ x

⇒ =v +u + Δu
Δx Δx Δx Δx
7 Taking the limit:
Δy Δu Δv Δv
lim = li ⎛ v +u + Δu ⎞
Δx → Δ
Δxx Δ
Δx → 0 ⎝ Δx Δx Δx ⎠
Δu Δv Δv
= v li + u li + lim u lim
Δxx→
→ Δx Δ →0 Δx Δxx→
→ Δ →0 Δx

dy du dv dv
8 ∴ =v +u +0× Theorem 1
dx dx dx dx
du dv
=v +u
dx dx

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 21 Product rule 1
Questions for reflection
1. In this proof did we assume that Δx is positive?

2. In stage 7 have we assumed that we can take the limit of each part of a sum and a product
separately?

d d
3. If ( x ) = 1 use the product rule to prove that ( x 2 ) 2x .
dx dx

4. Criticise the following ‘alternative’ proof:

d 2 d ⎛ ⎞
( x ) = ⎜ x+ x + …+ x
 ⎟+ x
dx dx ⎝ x times ⎠
d d d d
= ( ) + ( ) + …+ ( ) + (x )
dx
 dx dx
 dx 
x times

= 1
+1+
…+ 1 +
1
x times

=x

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 21 Product rule 2
 Fill-in proof 22 Quotient rule
We are going to demonstrate that...

d ⎛ u ⎞ v ddux u ddxv
=
dx ⎝ v ⎠ v2

You need to know...

d dv du
• the product rule:
dx
( uv ) = u
dx
+v
dx
(Theorem 1)

dy dy du
• the chain rule: = × (Theorem 2)
dx du dx
1
• the rule of exponents: v − n = n (Theorem 3)
v
d n
•
dx
( x ) nx n−1 (Theorem 4)

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons

d ⎛ u⎞ d
1 = (u × v ) Rewrite the quotient as a product
dx ⎜⎝ v ⎟⎠ dx

du d
2 =v 1
+u ( ) Theorem 1
dx dx

du dv d
3 =v 1
dx
+u
dx dv
( ) Theorem 2

du dv
4 =v 1
+ u (− ) Theorem 4
dx dx

1 du u dv
5 = − Theorem 3
v dx v 2 dx

v du u dv
6 = − Create a common denominator of v2
v 2 dx v 2 dx

v ddux − u ddxv
7 =
v2

Question for reflection

1. Is the quotient rule necessary, or can all problems be solved using just the product rule?

2. Is the quotient rule useful?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 22 Quotient rule 1
 Fill-in proof 23 Volumes of revolution
We are going to demonstrate that...
The volume of a revolution when a curve is rotated fully around the x-axis is given by:

b
V ∫ a
y 2 dx

You need to know...

• that an integral is the limit of a sum of very small terms (Theorem 1)
• that the volume of a disc is πr h. (Theorem 2)

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
1 The volume can be split up into discs:

2 The radius of each disc is the y-coordinate and the width is Theorem 2
Δx, therefore the volume is πy 2 Δx
3 The total volume is approximately:
b
V ∑ πy Δx 2

4 As we make the discs smaller the volume gets more and Theorem 1
more accurate:
b
V li
Δx →0
∑ πy Δx 2

b
=∫ π
πy 2 dx
a

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 23 Volumes of revolution 1
Questions for reflection
1. Use a similar argument to show that the volume of revolution of a curve rotated around the
b
y-axis is V ∫ a
πx 2 dy.

2. (Hard) By considering the volume being split into a series of thin cylinders show that the
b
volume of revolution around the x-axis can be given by V ∫
a
π | x | | y | dx .

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 23 Volumes of revolution 2
 Fill-in proof 24 An alternative formula for variance
We are going to demonstrate that...
2
The variance is x 2 x.

You need to know...

∑( )
2
−
• the definition of variance: σ 2
= i
(Theorem 1)
n

• the definition of mean y =

∑y i i
(Theorem 2)
n
i n
• ∑1 = n (Theorem 3)
i =1

• if a factor inside a sum is constant across the sum it can become

a factor of the whole sum: (Theorem 4)

∑f i g j g j ∑f i)
i i

• a finite sum of a sum can be split into two sums: (Theorem 5)

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
∑f i gi ∑
⎝ i
f i)⎟ + ⎜ ∑ g (i)⎟
⎠ ⎝ i ⎠
i

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons

∑( )
2
−
1 σ2 = i
Theorem 1
n

∑x
2
i i
2
−2 ix + x
2 = Expanding brackets
n

∑ ∑ 2x x + ∑ x
2
i i i i
3 = − Theorem 5
n n n

4 =
∑ i
− 2x
∑x i i
+x
2 ∑1 i
Theorem 4
n n n
2
5 = x2 − 2 × x × x + x Theorem 2 and
Theorem 3
2
6 = x2 − x

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 24 An alternative formula for variance 1
 Fill-in proof 25 Expectation and variance of the
binomial distribution
We are going to demonstrate that...
If X ~ B(n, p) then E ( X ) n
np and Var ( X ) np
n ( p)

You need to know……

• binomial expansion
• sigma notation
• how to calculate expectation and variance
• algebra of factorials and binomial coefficients.

Proof 1
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
1 If X ~ B(n, p)
r n
E( X ) ∑rP
r (X = r) By the definition of expectation
r =0
r =n
⎛ n⎞
= ∑r ⎜ ⎟ pr qn−r
r
r =0 ⎝ ⎠

r n
n! ⎛ n⎞
2 E( X ) ∑r r !(n − r )! p q r n −r
Using definition of ⎜ ⎟
r =0 ⎝ r⎠

r =n
n!
3 = 0 + ∑r p r q n −r Splitting the sum into the first term and the rest.
r =1 r !(n − r )!

r =n
n!
4 =∑ p r q n −r Simplifying the factorials
r =1 (r −1) ! (n − r ) !

r =n
(n − 1)!
5 = np∑ pr −1qn−r Taking out a factor of np
r =1 (r −1) !(n − r )!

r =n n − 1
⎛ ⎞ r −1 n−r
6 = np∑ ⎜ p q Rewriting the factorial form as a binomial
r =1 ⎝
r − 1⎟⎠
coefficient
a =b b
⎛ ⎞
7 = np∑ ⎜ ⎟ pa qb −a Substituting
a
a=0 ⎝ ⎠ r = a +1
n b +1

= np ( p + q )
b
8 Recognising this as a binomial expansion

= np (1)
b
Using the fact that p + q = 1
= np

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 25 Expectation 1
Questions for reflection
1. Why did the sum have to be split up into two parts before the factorials were simplified?

2. Why were factors of n and p taken out in line 5?

Proof 2
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.
Approach Reasons
r n
⎛ n⎞ r n −r
1 E( X2 ) ∑r 2
⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ p q First we need to find E( X 2 )
r =0

r =n
⎛ n ! ⎞ r n −r
2 = ∑r 2 ⎜ pq Rewriting the binomial
r =0 ⎝ r !(n − r )!⎟⎠ coefficient in factorial form
r =n
⎛ n! ⎞ r n −r
3 = 0 + ∑r ⎜ pq Splitting the sum into the first
1)!(n − r )!⎟⎠
r =1 ⎝ (r −1 term and the rest
r =n
⎛ n! ⎞ r n −r
4 = ∑ (( − ) + ) ⎜ pq Rewriting r as (r − 1) + 1
r =1 ⎝ (r −1)!(n − r )!⎟⎠

r =n
⎛ n! ⎞ r =n
n!
5 = ∑ ( − )⎜ −
+∑ pr qn−r Splitting the sum into two
r =1 ⎝ (r − ) (n − r ) ⎟⎠ r =1 (r − 1)!(n − r )! sums
r =n r =n
n! n!
6 = 0+∑ −
+∑ p r q n −r Splitting the first sum into the
r =2 (r − 2 ) ( − ) r =1 (r − 1)!(n − r )!
first term and the rest
r =n
n!
7 =∑ pr qn−r + np Recognising the second sum
r = 2 (r − 2 )!(n − r )!
from Proof 1
r =n
(n − 2)!
8 = n (n − 1) p2 ∑ pr −2qn−r + np Taking out a factor of
r = 2 (r − 2 )!(n − r )! n (n − 1) p2
r =n n − 2
⎛ ⎞ r −2 n −r
9 = n (n − 1) p2 ∑ ⎜ p q + np Rewriting the factorial form as
r =2 ⎝
r − 2 ⎟⎠
a binomial coefficient
a =b b
⎛ ⎞
10 = n (n − 1) p2 ∑ ⎜ ⎟ pbqb−a + np Substituting
a
a =0 ⎝ ⎠ r = a+2
n b+2
= n (n − 1) p2 ( p + q ) + np
b
11 Recognising this as a binomial
expansion
12 = n2 p2 − np2 + np Using the fact that p + q = 1

Var ( X ) E ( X ) ⎡⎣ E ( X )⎤⎦
2
13 Using the definition of
variance
= n2 p2 − np2 + np − (np )
2

14 = np − np2
= np( − p)

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 25 Expectation 2
Questions for reflection
1. Why was it useful to write r as (r − 1) + 1 in the 4th line?

2. Was the substitution in the 10th line necessary or just a useful way to simplify the algebra?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 25 Expectation 3
 Fill-in proof 26 Deriving formulae for the Poisson
distribution
We are going to demonstrate that...
mx e m
If X is a variable following a Poisson distribution with mean m then P ( X x) = .
mx e m x!
If P ( X x ) = then E ( X ) m and Var ( X ) .
x!
The sum of two Poisson variables also follows a Poisson distribution.

Things you need to know...

• the binomial expansion
• the concept of a limit
x n
• asymptotic definition of e x : e x i ⎛1 + ⎞
llim (Theorem 1)
n→∞ ⎝ n⎠
x x2
• series expansion of e x : e x = 1 + + … (Theorem 2)
1! 2 !
Proof 1: Deriving the distribution
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.
Approach Reasons
1 When waiting for a bus you could consider each minute to be a
binomial trial, or each second, or each millisecond. A Poisson
distribution can be thought of as the limit of a binomial distribution
as n → ∞ and p → 0 while the average, m n np, remains fixed.
2 If X ~ B(n, p) then
⎛ n⎞
P ( X = x ) = ⎜ ⎟ p x (1 p )
n x

⎝ x⎠
x n− x
n! ⎛ m⎞ ⎛ m⎞ m
3 = 1− Since p =
x !(n − x )! ⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ n⎠ n

  
x terms

n ( − )…( − + ) ⎛ mx ⎞ ⎛ m ⎞ n ⎛ m ⎞ − x
4 = 1− 1− Simplifying the factorials
x! ⎝ nx ⎠ ⎝ n⎠ ⎝ n⎠

n −x
nx ⎛ mx ⎞ ⎛ m ⎞ ⎛ m ⎞
5 ≈ 1− 1− If n is much larger than
x ! ⎝ nx ⎠ ⎝ n⎠ ⎝ n⎠ k, n k ≈ n
n −x
mx ⎛ m ⎞ ⎛ m ⎞
6 = 1− 1− Simplifying
x! ⎝ n⎠ ⎝ n⎠

−x
mx e − m ⎛ m ⎞
7 = 1− Theorem 1 applies since
x! ⎝ n⎠ n→∞
mx e − m m
8 ≈ 1 1− p ≈1
x! n
In the limit, this approximation is exact.

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 26 Deriving formulae for the Poisson distribution 1
Proof 2: Deriving the expectation
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.
Approach Reasons
x =∞
mx e m
1 E( X ) ∑x x!
From the definition of expectation
x =0
x =∞
mx e − m
2 = 0 + ∑x Splitting the sum into the first term and the rest
x =1 x!
x =∞
mx
3 = e−m ∑ e −m is a constant as far as the sum is concerned
x =1 ( x − 1) !
x 1
=
x ! (x − 1)!
x =∞
mx −1
4 = me − m ∑ Taking out a factor of m
x =1 ( x − 1) !
y =∞
my
5 = me − m ∑ Substitute y x −1
y =0 y !

6 = me − m em = m Theorem 2
Questions for reflection
1. Why was it necessary to split the sum into the first term and the rest before simplifying the
factorials?

2. Why was a substitution necessary?

Proof 3: Deriving the variance

Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.
Approach Reasons
x =∞ x m
me
1 E( X2 ) ∑x 2
First we need to find E( X 2 )
x =0 x!
x =∞
mx e − m
2 = 0 + ∑x 2 Splitting the sum into the first term and the rest
x =1 x!
x =∞
mx e − m
3 = ∑x Simplifying the factorial
x =1 (x − 1)!
x =∞
mx −1e − m
4 = m ∑x Taking out a factor of m
x =1 (x − 1)!

⎛ x =∞ mx −1e − m x =∞ mx −1e − m ⎞
= m⎜ ∑ ( −
( x − 1)! ∑
5 ) + ⎟ Rewriting x as ( x − ) + 1
⎝ x =1 x =1 ( x − 1)! ⎠

⎛ y =∞ m y − m y =∞ m y e − m ⎞
6 =m ∑ y ! + ∑ y ! ⎟⎠
⎝ y =0
Substituting y x −1
y =0

⎛ y =∞
m y e−m ⎞
7 = m m+ ∑ First term in the bracket is the expectation
⎝ y =0 y ! ⎟⎠ which we found in Proof 2

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 26 Deriving formulae for the Poisson distribution 2
8 = m(m + ) Second term in the bracket is the total
probability

∴ Var ( ) = E ( ) − ⎡⎣E ( X )⎤⎦

2
9 Definition of variance
= m2 + m − m2 = m

Question for reflection

1. Why was writing x as ( x − ) + 1 necessary?

Proof 4: Sum of two Poisson variables

If X ~ Po(λ) and Y Po (μ ) where X and Y are independent then what is the distribution of
Z = X +Y ?
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.
Approach Reasons
1 Consider all the different ways in which Z
can take the value z.
If X = 0 then Y z. If X = 1 then Y z − 1, etc.
2 ∴ P ( = ) = P ( X = 0) P (Y = z )
+ P ( = ) P (Y = z − 1)…
+ P ( = z ) P (Y = 0)
r=z
3 = ∑ P ( X = r ) P (Y = z − r ) Rewriting in sigma notation
r =0

r=z
λ r −λ μ z −r e − μ
4 =∑ × Using the formula for the Poisson
r =0 r! (z − r )! distribution
r=z
λ μ z −r
5 = e λe μ
∑ r ! × (z − r )! Factors of e −λ and e −μ can be taken out
r =0
of the sum since they are constants
e − (λ + μ ) r = z z!
6 = ∑
z ! r = 0 r !(z − r )!
λ μ z −r We are close to having a binomial
coefficient. Multiply by z ! in the sum to
get to this, but then you have to divide by
z ! too

e − (λ + μ ) r = z ⎛ z ⎞
7 = ∑ λ μ z −r
z ! r = 0 ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠
Replace the factorials with a binomial
coefficient

e − (λ + μ ) ( λ + μ )
z
8 = We can recognise the sum as a
z! binomial expansion
This is a Poisson distribution with mean λ μ.

Questions for reflection

1. At which stage in this proof did you make the link with the binomial expansion? How
would you look out for this in future?

2. At what stage in the proof did we use the fact that X and Y are independent?

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 26 Deriving formulae for the Poisson distribution 3
 Fill-in proof 27 Expectation algebra of linear
expressions
We are going to demonstrate that...
E (a b ) aE ( X ) b
Var (a b ) a2 Var( X )

You need to know...

• E( X ) ∑x p i i (Theorem 1)
• E ( X ) ∑x p
2 2
i i (Theorem 2)
• Var ( ) E( X ) − E( X )
2
(Theorem 3)
• ∑p i =1 (Theorem 4)

Proof 1
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons

1 E (aX + b ) ∑(ax
a i b) pi Theorem 1
i

2 =∑ + ∑bpi Separating the sum into two

i i parts
3 = a∑ + ∑p i Taking out constant factors
i i from the sums
4 = aE ( X ) + b∑ pi Theorem 1
i

5 = aE ( X ) + b Theorem 4

Proof 2
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons

1 (
E [aX + b ] ) ∑ (ax
i
i b ) pi
2
Theorem 2

= ∑(a xi pi + abx
b i pi + b pi ) Multiplying out
i

2 =∑ + ∑2abxi pi + ∑b2 pi Separating the sum into three

i i i parts
3 = a2 ∑ + ∑x p + b ∑ p
i
2
i Taking out constant factors
i i i from the sums
4 = a2 ( ) + 2ab∑ + ∑p i Theorem 2
i i

5 = a2 ( ) + 2abbE( X ) + b2 ∑ pi Theorem 1
i

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 27 Expectation algebra of linear expressions 1
 6 a2 ( ) + 2abbE( X ) + b2 Theorem 4

7 ∴ Var (a + b ) = a2 E ( X 2 ) + abE ( X ) + b − [ ( )+ ]2 Theorem 3

8 = a2 ( ) + 2abE ( X ) + b2 Multiplying out brackets

−[a2 E ( X ) + 2abbE ( X ) + b2 ]
2

9 = a2 ( ) − a2E ( X )2 Simplifying

10 = a2 ( ( ) − ( X )2 ) Factorising

11 = a2 V r( X ) Theorem 3

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 27 Expectation algebra of linear expressions 2
 Fill-in proof 28 Expectation of a sum of independent
variables
We are going to demonstrate that...
E( ) E ( X ) E(Y ) if X and Y are independent variables.

You need to know...

• E( X ) ∑x p i i (Theorem 1)
i

• E ( g ( , )) ∑∑g (x yi ) P(X
P(X xi Y yi ) (Theorem 2)
i i

• P( X x Y y ) P(
PX x ) P(Y y ) if X and Y are independent (Theorem 3)

• ∑p i =1 (Theorem 4)
• a finite double sum of a sum can be split into two double sums (Theorem 5)
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
∑∑ f (i, j ) g (i j ) = ⎜ ∑∑ f (i, j )
⎝ i j ⎠ ⎝
∑∑g (i j )⎟⎠
i j i j

Several of these theorems may be unfamiliar and may themselves need to be proven.

Proof
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.
Approach Reasons
1 E( ) ∑∑( i j ) P(
P( i yj) Theorem 2
i j

2 = ∑∑(xi + y j ) P( X = xi ) P(Y = y j ) Theorem 3

i j

3 = ∑∑xi P(X = xi )P(Y = y j ) + ∑∑ j P( X = xi )P(Y = y j ) Theorem 5

i j i j

4 ⎛ ⎞ Properties of sums
= ∑⎜ ( = ) ∑P ( = )
⎟
i ⎝ j ⎠
⎛ ⎞
+∑ ( = ) ∑y j P ( = )⎟⎠
i ⎝ j

5 =∑ ( = )× + ∑P( X = xi ) × E(Y ) Theorem 4 and

i i Theorem 1
6 = E( ) + E (Y ) ∑P( X = xi ) Theorem 1
i

7 = E( ) + E(Y ) Theorem 4

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 28 Sum of independent variables 1
Questions for reflection
1. Prove that E ( ) E ( X ) E(Y ) if X and Y are independent.

2. Prove that
E ([ ]) E( X ) E( ) E ( X ) E(Y )
Hence prove that
Var ( ) Var ( X ) Var
Va (Y )
3. The result has been proved for independent variables but it is actually true for all
uncorrelated variables. Research the difference between independent and uncorrelated.

4. (Hard!) Prove that Var ( ) ⎡⎣E ( X )⎤⎦ Var ( ) ⎡⎣E ( Y )⎤⎦ Var ( X ) Var ( X ) Var(Y).
2 2

5. (Hard!) Investigate the rules of double sums for infinite sums.

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 28 Sum of independent variables 2
 Fill-in proof 29 Expectation and variance of the
geometric distribution
We are going to demonstrate that...
n +1 n2 − 1
If X ~ DU (n) then E ( X ) = , Var ( X ) =
2 12
You need to know...
u1
• the sum to infinity for a geometric series: S∞ = if r < 1
1− r
• calculus – especially the quotient rule

x =∞
r
Lemma 1: Showing that ∑xr
(1 − r )2
x
=
x =1
Note: A lemma is a stepping stone towards a mathematical proof.
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
x =∞ x =∞
1 ∑xr x
r ∑xr x −1 Property of sums
x =1 x= 0

x =∞
d x
2 = r∑ (r ) Linking the expression to a standard derivative
x =1 dr

d ⎛ x =∞ x ⎞
3 =r ∑r
dr ⎜⎝ x =1 ⎟⎠
The sum of a derivative is the derivative of the sum

d ⎛ r ⎞
4 =r if r < 1 Sum of a geometric series
dr ⎝ 1 − r ⎠

5 =r
(1 − r ) + r Applying the quotient rule
(1 − r )2

r
6 = Simplifying
(1 − r )2

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 29 Geometric distribution 1
Proof 1: Deriving the expectation
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
x =∞
1 E( X ) ∑xxpq x −1 Definition of expectation
x =1

p i =∞
2 = q ∑xq x Using property of sums to link to Lemma 1
i =1

pq
3 = Applying Lemma 1
q (1 − q )
2

p
4 = Simplifying
(1 − q )2
p
5 = Since 1 − q = p
p2

1
6 =
p

x =∞
Lemma 2: Summing the series ∑x(x − 1)r x

x =1

Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
x =∞ x =∞
1 ∑x x rx r ∑x(x − 1)r x −2
Property of sums
x =1 x =0

x =∞
d2
2 =r 2
∑ dr 2
(r x ) Linking the expression to a standard derivative
x =1

d 2 ⎛ x =∞ x ⎞
3 = r2 ∑r
dr 2 ⎜⎝ x =1 ⎟⎠
The sum of a derivative is the derivative of a sum

d2 ⎛ r ⎞
4 = r2 if r < 1 Sum of a geometric series
dr 2 ⎝ 1 − r ⎠

2r 2
5 = Applying the quotient rule
(1 − r )3

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 29 Geometric distribution 2
Proof 2: Deriving the variance
Fill in the missing expressions and reasons to explain what is being done in each line.

Approach Reasons
x =∞
1 E( X2 ) ∑x 2
pq x 1
Definition of expectation
x =1

x =∞ x =∞
2 =∑ − −
+ ∑xpq x −1 Rewriting x 2 as ( )+ x
x =1 x =1

p x =∞ x =∞
= ∑
q x =1
− + ∑ xpq x −1 Using the rules of sums to link to Lemma 2
x =1

p x =∞
3 = ∑x(x − 1)q + E ( X )
q x =1
Recognising the definition of expectation

p 2q 2 1
4 = 3 +
From Lemma 2 and Proof 1
q (1 − q ) p

2 pq 1
5 = + Since 1 − q = p
p3 p
2q 1
= 2+
p p

Var ( ) E ( X ) − ⎡⎣E ( X )⎤⎦

2
6 Definition of variance
2
2q 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
7 = 2 + −⎜ ⎟ From above
p p ⎝ p⎠

2q p 1
8 = + 2− 2 Using a common denominator
p 2
p p

q + q + p −1
9 =
p2

q
10 = Since q + p = 1
p2

Cambridge Mathematics for the IB Diploma Higher Level © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Fill-in proof: 29 Geometric distribution 3