💤 D&K⌚
Psychology being investigated:
1. REM Stage: a stage of sleep where our eyes move rapidly under the
eyelids. This stage is associated with dreaming
2. nREM Stage: stages of sleep (stage 1 – 4) where the eyes are still,
and it is not associated with dreaming
3. Circadian Rhythm: a cycle that repeats daily, such as our sleep/wake
cycle
4. Ultradian Rhythm: Biological rhytgms are thóe that last less than 24
hours. For example, Sleep cycle has 4 nREM and REM stage, repeats
itself every 90 minutes when someone going to sleep without
interuption
5. EEG: a machine used to detect and record electrical activity in nerve
and muscle cells. It has large electrodes that are stuck on to the scalp
to determine brain wave activity such as stage of sleep
6. Dream: Subjective experience, they can form coherent and
incohenrent stories based on the imagery experienced by the person
who is asleep.
Background
Aserinsky and Kleitman explored the relationship between sleep and
dreams.
Participants woken from REM = likely to report a vivid, visual dream
Brain wave pattern during REM- similar to awake brain activity.
EOG: determine eye movements + its directions
Aim
Study 1: Dream recall occurs from REM/nREM stage?
Study 2: participants’ subjective estimates of the length of REM and the
actual length of REM sleep- positive correlation?
Study 3: Eye movement patterns match dream content?
Methodology
What Detail Strengths
Lab Artificial environment High control-> Reduce extra
experimen High control, variables-> Strengthen caus
t Standardization relationship
=> Internal validity
Same instruction + EEG-> re
-> Reliability
Interview Participants describe Detailed qualitative data
their dream through a
recorder
Correlation Self report vs actual Quantitative data=> spot pa
comparisons
Determine the relationship (d
strength)
Repeated Participants Decrease individual differenc
measures experienced all validity
design conditions in 3 studies? Less participants required
IV:
Study 1 – REM and nREM sleep
Study 2 – 5 minutes and 15 minutes
DV:
Study 1 - Dream Recall
Study 2 – Correct Estimation
Material used (Apparatus)
1. EEG
2. Bed
3. Voice recorder
4. Doorbell
Sample:
- 9 adult participants (7 male,2 female)
- 4 of them: withdrew after 2 night + result for comparisons only
- 5 remained: Study in depth
- Sampling technique: Volunteer (higher commitment but low
generalisability)
Procedure
Result
Conclusion
Evaluation
Application
Debates
Link to Assumption
🙉 Hasette
Psychology being investigated
Sex differences: The differences in hormones and brain structure caused the
difference between sexes
Socialization: The process of exposing an individual with social, which change the
behavior to fit the social demand
Play: Childhood behaviours are usually done for fun, which may not involve social
interaction and objects called “toys”
The role of hormones: Males have 10 times more testosterone than females while
females have way more oestrogen than males
Background
Aim
Methodology
Procedure
Results
Conclusion
Evaluation
Application
Debates
Issues
Link to assumption
🧠 Holzel
Psychology being investigated
Mindfulness: Involves cognitive processes and sensory experiences that impact
brain function
Localisation of function: How different part of the brain perform specific function.
For example, Hippocampus is the part of the brain that deals with learning,
memory, some emotional control and spatial navigation
Background
Aim
Methodology
Procedure
Results
Conclusion
Evaluation
Application
Debates
Issues
Link to assumption
🎨 Andrade✅
Andrade:
Baron Cohen✅
Baron Cohen
👀 Pozzulo
Psychology being investigated
False positive responses: When a person selects something that is not accurate but
the person believes it is. For example, selecting a person in the line up that the
person believes is the culprit while the real culprit is absent. In Pozzulo, children
selected a target and believed it was correct in the absent line up; where there
were not any correct target.
Eyewitness testimony: The information provided by an individual or group based on
what they can recall from observing an incident that is usually criminal in nature. In
Pozzulo, It was the task recall the target in videos and select the correct one in line
up.
Background
Aim
Methodology
Procedure
Results
Conclusion
Evaluation
Application
Debates
Issues
Link to assumption
😡 Badura
Psychology being investigated
Social learning theory: Learning through observation or imitation. Requires
observing behaviours from a model then reproduces it with model absence. 4 step
of SLT: Attention (observing behaviour)-> Retention (Remember behaviour)-> Motor
reproduction (Do it again, imitate)-> Motivation ( willing to imitate again). In
Bandura, children observed a model performing aggression, then they reproduced it
with model absence.
Aggression: Behaviours that is aimed at harming others either or both physically
and psychologically
Background
Aim
Methodology
Procedure
Results
Conclusion
Evaluation
Application
Debates
Issues
Link to assumption
🐘 Fagen
Psychology being investigated
Operant learning: Learning through consequences (reinforcement and
punishment either decrease ỏ increase the likelihood of repeating
behaviours)
Reinforcement: Increasing the probability of repeating a behaviour.
- Positive: involves presenting a desirable stimulus following a behavior
- Negative:involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior
Secondary Positive Reinforcement: Main techniques used in this study, using
primary and secondary reinforcers to reinforce behaviour.
- Primary: Inherently satisfy basic needs. In Fagen, it was chopped banana
- Secondary: Not inherently satisfy basic needs, but linked with Primary
reinforcer through classical conditioning. In Fagen, it was verbal cues
Shaping: Refine the behaviour of an organism by rewarding better attempts that
encourage the behaviour that are close to the final goal
Behavioural chaining: Reward a sequence of behaviour that paired with each other,
Need to perform the behaviours correctly in order to attempt the final one.
Background
Aim
Methodology
Procedure
Results
Conclusion
Evaluation
Application
Debates
Issues
Link to assumption
🔘 S&S
Psychology being investigated
Operant conditioning: (refer back to Fagen)
Classical Conditioning: Learning through association by pairing a neutral stimulus
with unconditioned stimulus to form a conditioned response.
Phobias: The irrational, persistent fear of an object or event (stimulus) that poses
little real danger but creates anxiety and avoidance in the sufferer. In S&S, the boy
had a disgusted feeling with the button.
Evaluative learning:A form of classical conditioning wherein attitudes
towards stimuli are considered to be the product of complex thought
processes and emotions, which lead an individual to perceive or
evaluate a previously neutral stimulus negatively. Attitudes acquired
through evaluative learning may be harder to change than mỏe
superficial associations.
Background
Aim
Methodology
Procedure
Results
Conclusion
Evaluation
Application
Debates
Issues
Link to assumption
⚡ Milgram
Psychology being investigated
Obedience: The behaviours of following orders from an authoritative figure.
- Destructive Obedience: Obedience has potential to cause psychological or
physical harm (injury others)
Social pressure: the influence of a person or group on another person or group
Background
Aim
Methodology
Procedure
Results
Conclusion
Evaluation
Application
Debates
Issues
Link to assumption
👬 Perry
Psychology being investigated
Interpersonal distance: Invisible boundaries surrounding that people would like to
maintain between them and people and decide who can step in based on the
identity and environmental factor.
Social Hormone: Oxytocin, roles as a neurotransmitter in social bonding. It helps in
the regulation and perception of social interactions between humans and other
mammals.
Empathy: The ability to understand and share others emotions.
- Cognitive: The ability to recognize emotions
- Emotional: The ability to share experienced emotions
Background
Aim
Methodology
Procedure
Results
Conclusion
Evaluation
Application
Debates
Issues
Link to assumption
🚆 Piliavin
Psychology being investigated
Bystander apathy: People who are witnessing a situation (bystander) that requires
help- emergency cases- have a tendency not to help or intervene. This is the result
of pressures such as diffusion of responsibility or pluralistic ignorance. For example,
individuals might not help the victim if they see no one offer help because they
might believe that helping is an appropriate decision if they are the only person who
offer help
Diffusion of responsibility: Responsibility of intervention in emergency cases is
shared equally among group members, therefore suggesting that the larger the
groups, the less likely the victim will receive help as people might feel less
responsible. For example, people might not choose to help the victim because they
feel less responsible to do so.
Background
The murder of Kitty Genovese: 38 eyewitnesses to the attack but no help were
received as the witness believed there might be someone else who would help her.
This lead to the diffusion of responsibility theory, suggesting the number of people
witnessed and the likelihood of helping victim behaviours negatively correlated as
people may pass on their responsibility to others.
The former research by Latane and Harley tested Diffusion of responsibility theory
in lab experiments, a controlled setting which could have low ecological validity.
Piliavin conducted it in a natural setting with the use of field experiment to achieve
more natural results.
Aim
Methodology
Procedure
Results
Conclusion
Evaluation
Application
Debates
Issues
Link to assumption
🧪 Research Method
Research methods
Experiments
Lab
Field
Experimental Design
Repeated
Independent
Matched pair
Case Study
Self-reports
Questionnaire
Interview
Observations
Participants-Non participants
Covert Overt
Naturalistics vs Controlled
Structured vs Non structured
Correlation
Longitudinal studies
Methodological concept
Aim & Hypothesis
Variables
Control
Types of data
Data analysis
Sampling
Generalisability
Validity
Reliability
Ethics
