MA2002 CALCULUS

Bao Huanchen / Wang Fei

[email protected] / [email protected]

Department of Mathematics
National University of Singapore
Office: S17-06-17 / S17-06-16
Tel: 6601-2430 / 6516-2937

Chapter 7: Inverse Functions and Transcendental Functions 2

Inverse Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Calculus of Inverse Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Inverse Trigonometric Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Logarithmic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

1
Chapter 7: Inverse Functions and Transcendental Functions 2
/ 52

One-to-One Functions
√
✔ Let f (x) = 3
x and g(x) = 1/x.
y √ y
y= 3
x y = 1/x
b b

O x O x

✘ Every horizontal line intersects each graph at most once.

✓ Different values of the variable have different images.
3 / 52

One-to-One Functions
✔ Definition. Let f be a function with domain D.
✘ f is called a one-to-one function if
✓ a 6= b ⇒ f (a) 6= f (b) for any a, b ∈ D.
✔ Remarks.
✘ For statements P and Q, P ⇒ Q is a conditional statement.
✘ The contrapositive of P ⇒ Q is “not Q ⇒ not P ”.
✘ A conditional statement and its contrapositive are logically equivalent.
✔ Example. f is differentiable at a ⇒ f is continuous at a.
✘ It is equivalent to its contrapositive:
✓ f is discontinuous at a ⇒ f is not differentiable at a.
4 / 52

2
One-to-One Functions
✔ Definition. Let f be a function with domain D.
✘ f is called a one-to-one function if
✓ f (a) = f (b) ⇒ a = b for any a, b ∈ D.
✔ Examples.
√
✘ Let f (x) = x. The domain is R. For any a, b ∈ R,
3

√ √ √ √
✓ f (a) = f (b) ⇒ 3 a = b ⇒ ( 3 a)3 = ( b)3 ⇒ a = b.
3 3

✗ Therefore, f is one-to-one on R.
✘ Let g(x) = 1/x. The domain is R \ {0}. For any a, b ∈ R \ {0},
1 1
✓ g(a) = g(b) ⇒ 1/a = 1/b ⇒ = ⇒ a = b.
1/a 1/b
✗ Therefore, g is one-to-one on R \ {0}.

5 / 52

Inverse Functions
✔ Definition. Let f be a one-to-one function.
Let A be the domain of f , and B the range of f .
✓ For each y ∈ B, there is a unique x ∈ A such that f (x) = y.
✘ The inverse function of f , denoted by f −1 , is defined by
✓ f −1 (y) = x ⇔ y = f (x), for any x ∈ A and y ∈ B.
✗ B is the domain of f −1 , and A is the range of f −1 .
✔ Examples.
√
✘ Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = 3
x.
✓ Then f −1
: R → R such that f −1
(x) = x3 .
✘ Let g : R \ {0} → R \ {0} be defined by g(x) = 1/x.
✓ Then g −1 : R \ {0} → R \ {0} such that g −1 (x) = 1/x.
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3
Inverse Functions
✔ Remarks. Let f be one-to-one with domain A and range B.
✘ f −1 is one-to-one with domain B and range A.
✓ f is the inverse of f −1 : (f −1 )−1 = f .
✘ The −1 in f −1 is not an exponent.
✓ f −1 (x) is the value of the function f −1 at x.
✘ y = f (x) ⇔ x = f −1 (y) for any x ∈ A and y ∈ B.
✓ f −1 (f (x)) = x for any x ∈ A.
✓ f (f −1 (y)) = y for any y ∈ B.
✘ For any set S, let iS : S → S be the identity function on S,
✓ defined by iS (x) = x for any x ∈ S.
✗ f −1 ◦ f = iA and f ◦ f −1 = iB .
7 / 52

Inverse Functions
✔ Let f be a one-to-one function.
✘ It admits the inverse function f −1 .
1. Let y = f (x).
2. Solve the equation for x in terms of y: x = f −1 (y).
3. Interchange x and y to express f −1 as a function in variable x:
✗ y = f −1 (x).
✔ In the Cartesian plane R2 , interchanging x and y has the same effect as the reflection with
respect to the straight line y = x.
✘ The graph of f and the graph of f −1
are symmetric with respect to the line y = x.
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4
Examples
✔ Let f (x) = x3 + 2. The domain is R and the range is R.
1. Let y = f (x) = x3 + 2.
√
2. Solve x in terms of y: x = 3 y − 2.
√
3. Interchange x and y: f −1 (x) = y = 3 x − 2.
y
y = f (x)

y = f −1 (x)

O 2 x

9 / 52

Examples
√
✔ Let g(x) = −1 − x. The domain is (−∞, −1], the range is [0, ∞).
√
1. Let y = g(x) = −1 − x.
2. Solve x in terms of y: x = −y 2 − 1.
3. Interchange x and y: g −1 (x) = y = −x2 − 1.
✓ The domain is [0, ∞) and the range is (−∞, −1].
y
y = g(x)

−1 O x

−1

y = g −1 (x)

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5
Calculus of Inverse Functions
✔ Suppose that f is increasing on a set I, i.e., a < b ⇒ f (a) < f (b).
✘ Let a, b ∈ I such that f (a) = f (b).
✓ a < b ⇒ f (a) < f (b) ⇒ f (a) 6= f (b).
✓ a > b ⇒ f (a) > f (b) ⇒ f (a) 6= f (b).
It must be a = b. Hence, f is one-to-one.
Suppose that f is decreasing on a set I. Similarly, f is one-to-one.
✔ Let f (x) = 1/x. Then f is one-to-one on R \ {0}.
✘ 1 < 2 and f (1) > f (2). Then f is not increasing.
✘ −1 < 1 and f (−1) < f (1). Then f is not decreasing.
✓ f is continuous and decreasing on (0, ∞).
✓ f is continuous and decreasing on (−∞, 0).

11 / 52

Calculus of Inverse Functions

✔ Theorem. Let f be continuous function on an interval I.
✘ Then f is one-to-one if and only if it is monotonic,
✓ i.e., either increasing or decreasing.
Proof. Suppose f is continuous and one-to-one on an interval I.
✘ Take any a, b ∈ I with a < b. Then f (a) 6= f (b).
✓ Suppose f (a) < f (b). It is expected to show f is increasing.
✘ Assume that f is not increasing.
✓ Then there exist α, β ∈ I such that α < β but f (α) > f (β).
✘ Aim: Construct a continuous function g such that
✓ g(0) = f (a) − f (b) < 0 and g(1) = f (α) − f (β) > 0.

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6
Calculus of Inverse Functions
✔ Proof. Suppose f is continuous and one-to-one on an interval I.
✘ a < b and f (a) < f (b), and α < β and f (α) > f (β).
✘ Let g(x) = f (a + x(α − a)) − f (b + x(β − b)), 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
✓ g is continuous on [0, 1],
✓ g(0) = f (a) − f (b) < 0, and g(1) = f (α) − f (β) > 0.
By Intermediate Value Theorem, there is c ∈ (0, 1) with g(c) = 0.
✓ f (a + c(α − a)) = f (b + c(β − b)).
✗ a + c(α − a) = b + c(β − b).
✗ (1 − c)a + cα = (1 − c)b + cβ.
✘ a < b, α < β and 0 < c < 1.
✓ (1 − c)a + cα < (1 − c)b + cβ, contradiction.

13 / 52

Calculus of Inverse Functions

✔ Suppose f is a one-to-one continuous function on an interval I.
✘ Suppose f is increasing.
✓ Let a < b in the domain of f −1 , i.e., the range of f .
✗ a = f (α) and b = f (β) for some α, β ∈ I.
α = β ⇒ f (α) = f (β) ⇒ a = b.
α > β ⇒ f (α) > f (β) ⇒ a > b.
✗ Then α < β, i.e., f −1 (a) < f −1 (b); so f −1 is increasing.
✘ Similarly, if f is decreasing, then f −1 is decreasing.
Let a < b in the domain of f −1 , a = f (α) and b = f (β), α, β ∈ I.
✘ f attains every value in [a, b], i.e., [a, b] ⊆ the range of f .
✓ The range of f , i.e., the domain of f −1 is an interval.
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7
Calculus of Inverse Functions
✔ Theorem. Suppose f is one-to-one and continuous on an interval I.
✘ Then the inverse function f −1 is also continuous.
Proof. Suppose that f is increasing. Then f −1 is increasing.
✘ Let b be in the domain of f −1 . Let a = f −1 (b) ∈ I.
✘ Suppose b is not the right endpoint of the domain of f −1 .
✓ Aim: f −1 is continuous at b from the right: lim+ f −1 (y) = a.
y→b

✗ Let ǫ > 0. Choose a proper δ > 0 such that

0 < y − b < δ ⇒ |f −1 (y) − a| < ǫ

⇔ a < f −1 (y) < a + ǫ
⇔ b < y < f (a + ǫ)
⇔ 0 < y − b < f (a + ǫ) − b.

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Calculus of Inverse Functions

✔ Theorem. Suppose f is one-to-one and continuous on an interval I.
✘ Then the inverse function f −1 is also continuous.
Proof. Suppose that f is increasing. Then f −1 is increasing.
✘ Let b be in the domain of f −1 . Let a = f −1 (b) ∈ I.
✘ Suppose b is not the right endpoint of the domain of f −1 .
✓ Let ǫ > 0. Take 0 < ǫ1 ≤ ǫ such that [a, a + ǫ1 ] ⊆ I.
✗ Choose δ = f (a + ǫ1 ) − b > 0.
0 < y − b < δ ⇒ b < y < b + δ = f (a + ǫ1 )
⇒ a < f −1 (y) < a + ǫ1 ≤ a + ǫ
⇒ 0 < f −1 (y) − a < ǫ.
✓ Then f −1 is continuous at b from the right.
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8
Calculus of Inverse Functions
✔ Theorem. Suppose f is one-to-one and continuous on an interval I.
✘ Then the inverse function f −1 is also continuous.
Proof. Suppose that f is increasing. Then f −1 is increasing.
✘ Let b be in the domain of f −1 . Let a = f −1 (b) ∈ I.
✘ Suppose b is not the right endpoint of the domain of f −1 .
✓ Then f −1 is continuous at b from the right.
✘ Suppose b is not the left endpoint of the domain of f −1 .
✓ Similarly, f −1 is continuous at b from the left.
Therefore, f −1 is continuous on its domain.
✘ f −1 is continuous at every interior point of the domain.
✘ f −1 is continuous from one side at endpoint (if any) of the domain.

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Calculus of Inverse Functions

✔ Theorem. Suppose f is one-to-one and continuous on an interval I.
y
y = f (x)

b
(a, b)
y = f −1 (x)
(b, a)
b

O x

✘ If f is differentiable at an interior point a of I, and f ′ (a) 6= 0,

1
✓ then f −1 is differentiable at b = f (a), and (f −1 )′ (b) = ′ .
f (a)
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9
Calculus of Inverse Functions
✔ Proof. Let y = f (x). Then x = f −1 (y).
f −1 (y) − f −1 (b) x−a
✘ (f −1 )′ (b) = lim = lim .
y→b y−b y→b f (x) − f (a)

✓ It is proved that f −1 is continuous at b.

✗ y → b ⇒ f −1 (y) → f −1 (b) ⇒ x → a.
✓ It is proved that f −1 is one-to-one.
✗ y 6= b ⇒ f −1 (y) 6= f −1 (b) ⇒ x 6= a.
x−a 1 1
✘ (f −1 )′ (b) = lim = f (x)−f (a)
= ′ .
x→a f (x) − f (a) lim f (a)
x→a x−a

dy dx dx 1
✔ Remark. f ′ (x) = and (f −1 )′ (y) = . Then = .
dx dy dy dy/dx

19 / 52

Example
✔ Let f (x) = x2 on [0, 2]. Find (f −1 )′ (2).
✘ Method 1:
√ 1 1
✓ f −1 (x) = x, (f −1 )′ (x) = √ and (f −1 )′ (2) = √ .
2 x 2 2
✘ Method 2:
1
✓ If f (a) = 2, then (f −1 )′ (2) = ′ , provided that f ′ (a) 6= 0.
f (a)
√ √ √
✓ a = 2, f (x) = 2x and f ( 2) = 2 2.
′ ′

1 1
✗ (f −1 )′ (2) = √ = √ .
f ( 2)
′ 2 2
✔ Remark. The second method allows us to find (f −1 )′ without the explicit form of f −1 .

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10
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
✔ Let f (x) = sin x. It is not one-to-one on R.
y
y = sin−1 x
1

− π2 O π x
2
y = sin x
−1

✘ Restrict the domain of f to [− π2 , π2 ].

✓ Then f is one-to-one with range [−1, 1].
✗ f admits an inverse function [−1, 1] → [− π2 , π2 ].

21 / 52

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

✔ Definition. Let x ∈ [−1, 1].
✘ The unique number y ∈ [− π2 , π2 ] such that sin y = x is denoted by
✓ y = arcsin x or y = sin−1 x.
Then sin−1 : [−1, 1] → [− π2 , π2 ] is the inverse sine function.

✔ Let y = sin−1 x. Then sin y = x.

d dy 1 1
✘ sin−1 x = = = .
dx dx dx/dy cos y
p √
✓ y ∈ [− π2 , π2 ] ⇒ cos y ≥ 0 ⇒ cos y = 1 − sin2 y = 1 − x2 .
✔ Theorem. sin−1 is continuous on [−1, 1], differentiable on (−1, 1),
d 1
✘ sin−1 x = √ , x ∈ (−1, 1).
dx 1 − x2
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11
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
✔ Let f (x) = cos x. It is not one-to-one on R.
y
3

2
y = cos−1 x

1
y = cos x

−π − π2 O π π x
2

−1

✘ Restrict the domain of f to [0, π].

✓ Then f is one-to-one with range [−1, 1].
✗ f admits an inverse function [−1, 1] → [0, π].

23 / 52

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

✔ Definition. Let x ∈ [−1, 1].
✘ The unique number y ∈ [0, π] such that cos y = x is denoted by
✓ y = arccos x or y = cos−1 x.
Then cos−1 : [−1, 1] → [0, π] is the inverse cosine function.
p
✔ Let cos−1 x = y ∈ [0, π]. Then cos y = x and sin y = 1 − cos2 y.
d dy 1 1 1
✘ cos−1 x = = = = −√ .
dx dx dx/dy − sin y 1 − x2
✔ Theorem. cos−1 is continuous on [−1, 1], differentiable on (−1, 1).
d 1
✘ cos−1 x = − √ , x ∈ (−1, 1),
dx 1 − x2
π
✘ sin−1 x + cos−1 x = , x ∈ [−1, 1].
2
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12
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
✔ Definition. Let x ∈ R.
✘ The unique number y ∈ (− π2 , π2 ) such that tan y = x is denoted by
✓ y = arctan x or y = tan−1 x.
Then tan−1 : R → (− π2 , π2 ) is the inverse tangent function.
y
y = tan x
π
2

y = tan−1 x

− π2 O π x
2

− π2

25 / 52

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

✔ Definition. Let x ∈ R.
✘ The unique number y ∈ (0, π) such that cot y = x is denoted by
✓ y = arccot x or y = cot−1 x.
Then cot−1 : R → (0, π) is the inverse cotangent function.
y
π

y = cot x
π
2

y = cot−1 x

O π π x
2

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13
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
✔ Let y = tan−1 x. Then tan y = x.
d dy 1 1 1 1
✘ tan−1 x = = = 2
= 2
= .
dx dx dx/dy sec y 1 + tan y 1 + x2
✔ Let y = cot−1 x. Then cot y = x.
d dy 1 1 1 1
✘ cot−1 x = = = 2
=− 2
=− .
dx dx dx/dy − csc y 1 + cot y 1 + x2

✔ Theorem. tan−1 and cot−1 are differentiable on R.

d 1
✘ tan−1 x = ,
dx 1 + x2
d 1
✘ cot−1 x = − ,
dx 1 + x2
π
✘ tan−1 x + cot−1 x = .
2
27 / 52

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

✔ It is expected to define y = sec−1 x for some y such that sec y = x.
d dy 1 1
✘ sec−1 x = = = .
dx dx dx/dy sec y tan y
✓ Is it possible to choose y such that tan y ≥ 0?
✔ Definition. Let x ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).
✘ The unique y ∈ [0, π2 ) ∪ [π, 3π
2
) such that sec y = x is denoted by
✓ y = arcsec x or y = sec−1 x.
Then sec−1 is the inverse secant function.
✘ The unique y ∈ (0, π2 ] ∪ (π, 3π
2
] such that csc y = x is denoted by
✓ y = arccsc x or y = csc−1 x.
Then csc−1 is the inverse cosecant function.
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14
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
✔ Let sec−1 x = y ∈ [0, π2 ) ∪ [π, 3π
2
). Then sec y = x and tan y ≥ 0.
d dy 1 1 1
✘ sec−1 x = = = = p .
dx dx dx/dy sec y tan y sec y sec2 y − 1
✔ Let csc−1 x = y ∈ (0, π2 ] ∪ (π, 3π
2
]. Then csc y = x and cot y ≥ 0.
d dy 1 −1 −1
✘ csc−1 x = = = = p .
dx dx dx/dy csc y cot y csc y csc2 y − 1

✔ Theorem. sec−1 and csc−1 are continuous on (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).
d 1 d 1
✘ sec−1 x = √ , csc−1 x = − √ , |x| > 1.
dx x x2 − 1 dx x x2 − 1
( π
2
if x ≥ 1,
✘ sec−1 x + csc−1 x = 5π
2
if x ≤ −1.

29 / 52

Logarithmic Function
✔ Definition. The natural logarithmic function is defined by
Z x
1
✘ ln x = dt, (x > 0).
1 t
y
1
y=
t

O 1 x t

✓ ln 1 = 0; ln x is continuous and differentiable on R+ .

d 1 d2 1
✓ ln x = and 2 ln x = − 2 for x > 0.
dx x dx x
✓ ln x is increasing and concave down on R+ .

30 / 52

15
Logarithmic Function
Z x
1
✔ ln x = dt, (x > 0).
1 t
y

y = ln x
1

O 1 2 3 4 5 6 x

−1

✔ Exercises.
✘ lim ln x = −∞, lim ln x = ∞, and the range of ln x is R.
x→0+ x→∞

31 / 52

Logarithmic Function
✔ Let x > 0 and a > 0. Then ln(ax) = ln a + ln x.
✘ Let f (x) = ln(ax) − ln x. Then f is differentiable on R+ .
d d 1 1
✓ f ′ (x) = ln(ax) − ln x = a · − = 0.
dx dx ax x
✗ Then f is constant on R+ .
✓ f (x) = f (1) ⇒ ln(ax) − ln x = ln a − ln 1 = ln a.
✔ Let x > 0 and r ∈ Q. Then ln(xr ) = r ln x.
✘ Let g(x) = ln(xr ) − r ln x. Then g is differentiable on R+ .
d d 1 r
✓ g ′ (x) = ln(xr ) − r ln x = rxr−1 · r − = 0.
dx dx x x
+
✗ Then g is constant on R .
✓ g(x) = g(1) ⇒ ln(xr ) − r ln x = ln 1 − r ln 1 = 0.
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16
Logarithmic Function
Z
d 1 1
✔ ln x = (x > 0). Then dx = ln x + C, where x > 0.
dx x x
d 1 1
✘ Let x < 0. Then −x > 0 and ln(−x) = −1 · = .
dx −x x
Z
1
✓ dx = ln(−x) + C, where x < 0.
x
✔ Theorem. For any x 6= 0,
Z
d 1 1
✘ ln |x| = and dx = ln |x| + C.
dx x x
✔ Suppose a > 0 and b > 0, or a < 0 and b < 0.
Z b
1 x=b
✘ dx = ln |x| = ln |b| − ln |a|.
a x x=a

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Examples
Z Z
sin x
✔ tan x dx = dx.
cos x
du
✘ Let u = cos x. Then = − sin x.
Z Z dx
−1
✓ tan x dx = du = − ln |u| + C = − ln |cos x| + C.
u
Z Z
sec x (sec x + tan x)
✔ sec x dx = dx.
sec x + tan x
du
✘ Let u = sec x + tan x. Then = sec x tan x + sec2 x.
Z Z dx
1
✓ sec x dx = du = ln |u| + C = ln |sec x + tan x| + C.
u
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17
Logarithmic Differentiation
√
dy (x2 + 1) x + 3
✔ Find if y = for x > 1.
dx x−1
✘ y is the product of differentiable functions, so y is differentiable.
 
ln y = ln (x2 + 1)(x + 3)1/2 (x − 1)−1
= ln(x2 + 1) + ln[(x + 3)1/2 ] + ln[(x − 1)−1 ]
= ln(x2 + 1) + 12 ln(x + 3) − ln(x − 1).
✘ Differentiate with respect to x.
1 dy 2x 1 1 1
✓ = 2 + − .
y dx x +1 2 x+3 x−1
  2 √
dy 2x 1 1 (x + 1) x + 3
✘ = + − .
dx x2 + 1 2(x + 3) x − 1 x−1

35 / 52

Logarithmic Differentiation
✔ Let y = [f1 (x)]r1 · · · [fn (x)]rn , r1 , . . . , rn ∈ Q, and
✘ f1 , . . . , fn are nonzero differentiable functions.
1. Take absolute value.
✓ |y| = |f1 (x)|r1 · · · |fn (x)|rn .
2. Take natural logarithm.
✓ ln |y| = r1 ln |f1 (x)| + · · · + rn ln |fn (x)|.
3. Differentiate with respect to x.
1 dy r1 f1′ (x) rn fn′ (x)
✓ = + ··· + .
y dx f1 (x) fn (x)
This method of finding derivative is called logarithmic differentiation.
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18
Example
dy x cos x
✔ Find if y = √ , where y 6= 0.
dx csc x
1. |y| = |x| |cos x| |csc x|−1/2 .
2. ln |y| = ln |x| + ln |cos x| − 12 ln |csc x|.
1 dy 1 − sin x 1 − csc x cot x
3. = + − .
y dx x cos x 2 csc x
 
dy 1 1 x cos x
✓ = − tan x + cot x √ .
dx x 2 csc x
✔ Remark.
✘ The logarithmic differentiation is not applicable if y = 0.
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Exponential Function
✔ Note that ln 2 > ln 1 = 0.
✘ There exists a rational number r > 1/ ln 2.
✔ Let f (x) = ln x. It is continuous on [1, 2r ].
✘ f (1) = ln 1 = 0 < 1 and f (2r ) = ln(2r ) = r ln 2 > 1.
✓ By Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists c ∈ (1, 2r ) with
✗ f (c) = ln c = 1.
✘ f is increasing on R+ ; so f is one-to-one.
✓ There exists a unique c ∈ R+ such that ln c = 1.
✔ Definition. The Euler’s number e is the number such that ln e = 1.
✘ e = 2.7182818284590452353602874713526624977572 · · · .
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19
Exponential Function
✔ Let e be the Euler’s number, where ln e = 1. Then e0 = 1.
n copies
z }| {
n 1
✘ Let n ∈ N. Then e = e · e · · · · · e
and e−n = n .
e
√ √
✘ Let n ∈ N. There is a unique number e such that ( n e)n = e.
n

√
✓ Define e1/n = n e.
✘ Let r ∈ Q. Then r = m/n, where m ∈ Z and n ∈ N.
√ √
✓ Define er = em/n = ( n e)m = n em .
✔ Let f (x) = ln x. It is increasing on R+ with range R.
✘ Let f −1 : R → R+ be the inverse function of f .
✓ Let x ∈ Q. Then f (ex ) = ln(ex ) = x ln e = x.
✗ ex = f −1 (x).

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Exponential Function
✔ Definition. Let x ∈ R. There is a unique y ∈ R+ so that ln y = x.
✘ It is denoted by y = exp x or y = ex .
Then exp : R → R+ is called the exponential function.
✔ Remark. Let r ∈ Q, say r = m/n with m ∈ Z and n ∈ N.
√ √
✘ er = ( n e)m = n em and er = ln−1 (r) = exp r.
✔ Let y = ex . Then x = ln y.
✘ ln(ex ) = x for x ∈ R and eln y = y for y ∈ R+ .
d x dy 1 1
✘ e = = = = y = ex .
dx dx dx/dy 1/y
✔ Theorem. The exponential function exp is differentiable on R.
d d x
✘ exp x = exp x or e = ex .
dx dx
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20
Exponential Function
✔ exp and ln are inverse functions of each other.
y

y = exp x
1

O 1 y = ln xx

✔ Exercises.
✘ lim ex = 0 and lim ex = ∞.
x→−∞ x→∞

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Exponential Function
✔ Let a > 0. Then ar is well-defined for r ∈ Q.
✘ ln(ar ) = r ln a ⇔ ar = exp(r ln a) = er ln a .
✔ Definition. The exponential function of base a > 0 is defined by
✘ ax = exp(x ln a) = ex ln a , x ∈ R.
✔ Remark. By definition,
✘ ln(ax ) = x ln a for all a > 0 and x ∈ R.
y

O x

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21
Exponential Function
✔ Theorem. Let x, y ∈ R.
1. ex · ey = ex+y .
2. e−x = 1/ex .
3. (ex )y = exy .
Proof.
✘ ln(ex · ey ) = ln(ex ) + ln(ey ) = x + y.
✓ ex · ey = exp(x + y) = ex+y .
✘ e−x · ex = e(−x)+x = e0 = 1.
✓ e−x = 1/ex .
✘ Let a = ex . Then ln[(ex )y ] = ln(ay ) = y ln a = y ln(ex ) = yx.
✓ (ex )y = exp(yx) = exy .

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Exponential Function
✔ Theorem. Let a > 0 and x, y ∈ R.
✘ ax ay = ax+y .
✘ a−x = 1/ax .
✘ (ax )y = axy .
d x
✘ a = ax ln a.
dx
Proof.
✘ ax ay = ex ln a ey ln a = ex ln a+y ln a = e(x+y) ln a = ax+y .
✘ a−x = e(−x) ln a = e−(x ln a) = 1/ex ln a = 1/ax .
✘ (ax )y = ey ln(a ) = ey·x ln a = exy·ln a = axy .
x

✘ ax = ex ln a . Let u = x ln a. Then du/dx = ln a.

d x d u du d u
✓ a = e = e = ln a · eu = ax ln a.
dx dx dx du
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22
Exponential Function
✔ Theorem. For any a ∈ R, f (x) = xa is differentiable on R+ , and
d a
✘ x = axa−1 , (x > 0).
dx
Proof. Note that xa = ea ln x . Let u = a ln x. Then
d a d a ln x d u du d u a u
x = e = e = e = e
dx dx dx dx du x
a a ln x −1 a a−1
= e = a · x x = ax .
x

Z  ln |x| + C, if a = −1,
a
✔ x dx = xa+1
 + C, if a 6= −1.
a+1
/ Q, then the domain of f (x) = xa is [0, ∞).
✘ If a ∈

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Logarithmic Differentiation
d x
✔ Find x , (x > 0).
dx
✘ Let y = xx . Take natural logarithmic function:
✓ ln y = ln(xx ) = x ln x.
✘ Differentiate with respect to x:
1 dy d 1
✓ = (x ln x) = 1 · ln x + x · = ln x + 1.
y dx dx x
d x
✘ x = (ln x + 1)xx .
dx
✔ Let y = f (x)g(x) , where f, g are differentiable and f is positive.
dy
✘ can be found by logarithmic differentiation by (i) taking logarithmic function
dx
and (ii) differentiating with respect to x.

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23
Exponential Function
✔ Theorem. e = lim (1 + x)1/x .
x→0
 
1/x 1
lim (1 + x) = lim exp ln(1 + x)
x→0 x→0 x
 
ln(1 + x)
= exp lim
x→0 x
!
d
ln(1 + x)
= exp lim dx d
x→0
dx
x
 
1/(1 + x)
= exp lim
x→0 1
1
= exp(1) = e = e.

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Exponential Function
✔ Find lim f (x)g(x) , where f (x) > 0.
x→a

1. Express f (x)g(x) = exp[g(x) ln f (x)].

2. Interchange lim operator and exp function.

✔ Find lim+ xx .
x→0
 
x
lim x = lim+ exp(x ln x) = exp lim x ln x
x→0+ x→0 x→0+
  !
d
ln x ln x
= exp lim+ = exp lim+ ddx
x→0 1/x x→0 (1/x)
dx
   
1/x
= exp lim+ 2
= exp lim+ (−x) = exp(0) = e0 = 1.
x→0 −1/x x→0

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24
Hyperbolic Trigonometric Functions
✔ Definition.
✘ The hyperbolic sine function is defined by
ex − e−x
✓ sinh x = .
2
✘ The hyperbolic cosine function is defined by
ex + e−x
✓ cosh x = .
2
✔ Let x = cosh t and y = sinh t.
✘ Then x2 − y 2 = cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1, x > 0.
✓ This represents the right branch of a hyperbola.
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Hyperbolic Trigonometric Functions

✔ Definition.
✘The hyperbolic sine function is defined by
ex − e−x
✓ sinh x = .
2
✘ The hyperbolic cosine function is defined by
ex + e−x
✓ cosh x = .
2
✔ Exercise.
✘ sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y.
✘ cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y.
d d
✘ sinh x = cosh x and cosh x = sinh x.
dx dx
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25
Hyperbolic Trigonometric Functions
d ex + e−x
✔ sinh x = cosh x = ≥ 1.
dx 2
✘ Then sinh is increasing on R with range R.
✓ sinh−1 : R → R is the inverse hyperbolic sine function.
✔ Let y = sinh−1 x. Then x = sinh y.
dy 1 1 1 1
✘ = = =p =√ .
dx dx/dy cosh y 2
1 + sinh y 1 + x2

✔ Theorem.
✘ sinh−1 : R → R is differentiable on R.
d 1
✘ sinh−1 x = √ , x ∈ R.
dx 1 + x2
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Hyperbolic Trigonometric Functions

d d2
✔ cosh x = sinh x > 0 for x > 0 and 2 cosh x = cosh x > 0.
dx dx
✘ Then cosh is increasing on [0, ∞) and concave up on R.
Restrict cosh on [0, ∞). It has range [1, ∞).
✓ cosh−1 : [1, ∞) → [0, ∞): inverse hyperbolic cosine function.
✔ Let y = cosh−1 x. Then x = cosh y.
dy 1 1 1 1
✘ = = =p =√ .
dx dx/dy sinh y 2
cosh y − 1 2
x −1
✔ Theorem.
✘ cosh−1 : [1, ∞) → [0, ∞) is continuous on [1, ∞).
d 1
✘ cosh−1 x = √ for x > 1.
dx x2 − 1
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