UNIT 01:

a) States of matters:

1.1 Three States of Matter

 Solids: Fixed shape, strong forces, particles vibrate.

 Liquids: No fixed shape, moderate forces, particles move slowly.
 Gases: No fixed shape or volume, weak forces, particles move freely.

1.2 Interconversions

 Melting, Freezing, Boiling, Condensation, Sublimation, Deposition.

 Heating increases particle movement; cooling slows it down.

1.3 Dilution & Diffusion

 Dilution: Adding solvent spreads solute particles.

 Diffusion: Random movement of gas particles (e.g., bromine gas
spreading).

1.4 Key Definitions

 Solvent: Dissolves a solute.

 Solute: Substance that dissolves.
 Solution: Mixture of solute + solvent.
 Saturated solution: No more solute dissolves.

1.5C Solubility

 Maximum solute dissolving in 100 g solvent at a given temperature.

1.6C Solubility Curves

 Show solubility vs. temperature; higher temp → more solubility (except

gases).

1.7C Practical: Investigating Solubility

 Dissolve solid, filter, evaporate water, measure remaining solute.

b) Elements, compounds and mixtures

 Classification:
o Element: Pure substance with only one type of atom.
o Compound: Two or more elements chemically bonded.
o Mixture: Two or more substances not chemically bonded.
 Separation Techniques:

o Simple distillation: Separates liquid from a solution (e.g., water

from saltwater).
o Fractional distillation: Separates liquids with different boiling
points (e.g., crude oil).
 o Filtration: Separates insoluble solids from liquids.
o Crystallisation: Obtains pure crystals from a solution.
o Paper chromatography: Separates substances based on
solubility.

 Chromatograms: Show components of mixtures; Rf value helps identify

substances.
 Practical: Use chromatography to separate inks/food colorings.

c) Atomic Structure
 Basic Terms:

o Atom: Smallest unit of an element.

o Molecule: Two or more atoms chemically bonded.

 Structure of an Atom:

o Proton: Mass = 1, Charge = +1.

o Neutron: Mass = 1, Charge = 0.
o Electron: Mass ≈ 0, Charge = -1.
o Nucleus contains protons and neutrons; electrons orbit in shells.

 Key Definitions:

o Atomic number (Z): Number of protons.

o Mass number (A): Protons + neutrons.
o Isotope: Atoms of the same element with different neutrons.
o Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): Weighted average of isotopes.

 Calculation of Ar:

o Formula: Ar = (mass × abundance) / total abundance.

D) The Periodic Table

 Arrangement:

o By atomic number (protons).

o In groups (columns) – same number of outer electrons.
o In periods (rows) – same number of electron shells.

 Electronic Configuration:

o First shell = 2 electrons, Second = 8, Third = 8.

o Example: Sodium (Na) = 2,8,1.

 Metals vs. Non-metals:

o Metals: Good conductors, form basic oxides.

 o Non-metals: Poor conductors, form acidic oxides.
o Position in table predicts if an element is a metal/non-metal.

 Electronic Configuration & Group Number:

o Last digit of the configuration = Group number.

o Example: 2,8,7 → Group 7 (Halogens).

E) Chemical Formulae, Equations, and Calculations

 Chemical Equations:

o Write word & balanced chemical equations (with state symbols).

o Use given data to write equations for unfamiliar reactions.

 Relative Mass Calculations:

o Relative Atomic Mass (Aᵣ): Weighted average mass of an

element's isotopes.
o Relative Molecular Mass (Mᵣ): Sum of Aᵣ values in a molecule.

 Amount of Substance:

o Mole (mol) = Amount of substance.

o Mass (g) = Moles × Mᵣ.

 Reacting Masses & Yield:

o Use equations & experimental data to find reacting masses.

o Percentage yield = (actual yield ÷ theoretical yield) × 100.

 Empirical & Molecular Formulae:

o Empirical: Simplest ratio of elements in a compound.

o Molecular: Actual number of atoms in a molecule.

Concentration Calculations:

o Concentration (mol/dm³) = Moles ÷ Volume (dm³).

 Gas Volume Calculations:

 o 1 mole of gas occupies 24 dm³ at room temperature &
pressure (rtp).
o Use moles = volume (dm³) ÷ 24 for gas calculations.

 Practical:

o Determine a metal oxide formula using combustion (MgO) or

reduction (CuO).

F) Ionic Bonding


Formation of Ions:


o Metals (Groups 1, 2, 3) lose electrons → positive ions.
o Non-metals (Groups 5, 6, 7) gain electrons → negative ions.
o Learn common ion charges (e.g., Ag⁺, Fe²⁺, NH₄⁺, CO₃²⁻).


Ionic Compounds:

o Formed by electron transfer (use dot-and-cross diagrams).

o Giant ionic lattice structure → high melting & boiling points
due to strong electrostatic forces.
o Do not conduct electricity when solid, but do conduct when
molten or dissolved.

G) Covalent Bonding

Formation of Covalent Bonds:

o Sharing of electrons between non-metals.

Dot-and-Cross Diagrams:

o Diatomic molecules (H₂, O₂, N₂, halogens, hydrogen halides).

o Simple molecules (H₂O, CO₂, CH₄).
o Larger molecules (polymers, organic compounds).

Properties of Covalent Substances:

o Simple molecules: Low melting & boiling points (weak

intermolecular forces).
o Giant covalent structures: High melting & boiling points (strong
bonds).
o Diamond, graphite, fullerenes have unique structures
influencing properties.
 o Most covalent compounds don’t conduct electricity (except
graphite).

H) Metallic Bonding
 Metallic Lattice:
o 2D diagram representation of positive metal ions in a "sea"
of delocalized electrons.
 Bonding Explanation:

o Electrostatic attractions between positive ions and free-moving

electrons hold the metal together.

 Properties of Metals:

o Good electrical conductors (delocalized electrons).

o Malleable & ductile (layers of ions can slide over each other).

I) Electrolysis
 Electrical Conductivity:

o Covalent compounds don’t conduct electricity.

o Ionic compounds conduct only when molten or dissolved (ions
free to move).

 Terminology:

o Anions (-) go to the anode (+), cations (+) go to the cathode

(-).

 Electrolysis Experiments:

o Molten compounds: e.g., lead(II) bromide.

o Aqueous solutions: e.g., sodium chloride, copper(II) sulfate.

 Half-Equations:

o Show oxidation (loss of electrons) & reduction (gain of electrons).

Unit 2 : Organic Chemistry

A) Group 1 (Alkali Metals) – Lithium, Sodium, and

Potassium
 Reactions with Water:
o Produce hydrogen gas and a metal hydroxide (alkaline solution).
o Similar reactions confirm they belong to the same family.
 Reactions with Air:
 o More vigorous as you go down the group, forming metal
oxides.

 Trends in Reactivity:

o Increases down the group due to larger atomic size and

weaker attraction between nucleus and outer electron.

B) Group 7 (Halogens) – Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine

 Physical Properties:

o Exist as diatomic molecules (X₂).

o Chlorine (gas) → Bromine (liquid) → Iodine (solid) as you go
down the group.

 Trends in Reactivity:

o Decreases down the group (harder to gain an extra electron).

 Displacement Reactions:

o More reactive halogens displace less reactive ones from

compounds (e.g., chlorine displaces bromine from KBr solution).

C) Gases in the Atmosphere

 Composition of Dry Air:
o 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, ~1% argon, ~0.04% carbon
dioxide.
 Oxygen Percentage Experiment:

o Reacting metals (iron) or non-metals (phosphorus) with

oxygen and measuring the decrease in air volume.

 Combustion of Elements:

o Magnesium → Burns with a bright white flame, forms MgO.

o Hydrogen → Burns explosively to form H₂O.
o Sulfur → Burns with a blue flame, forms SO₂ (acidic gas).

 Carbon Dioxide Formation:

o Produced from the thermal decomposition of metal

carbonates, e.g., CuCO₃ → CuO + CO₂.

 Climate Change Impact:

o CO₂ is a greenhouse gas, increasing amounts contribute to

global warming.
D) Reactivity Series
 Arrangement Based on Reactions:

o Metals react with water & acids (more vigorous reaction =

more reactive metal).
o Displacement reactions with metal oxides and salts show
reactivity trends.

 Reactivity Order (Most → Least):

o Potassium > Sodium > Lithium > Calcium > Magnesium >
Aluminium > Zinc > Iron > Copper > Silver > Gold.

 Rusting of Iron:

o Requires water and oxygen.

o Prevention: Barrier methods, galvanizing, sacrificial protection.

 Oxidation & Reduction:

o Oxidation: Gain of oxygen / Loss of electrons.

o Reduction: Loss of oxygen / Gain of electrons

E) Extraction and Uses of Metals

 Metal Extraction:
o Unreactive metals (e.g., gold) exist in their native form.
o More reactive metals extracted from ores using carbon
reduction (iron) or electrolysis (aluminium).
 Properties & Uses:

o Aluminium → Lightweight, corrosion-resistant (e.g., airplanes,

cans).
o Copper → Conducts electricity, ductile (e.g., wires, plumbing).
o Iron & Steel:

 Low-carbon steel → Malleable (e.g., car bodies).

 High-carbon steel → Hard and brittle (e.g., cutting tools).
 Stainless steel → Corrosion-resistant (e.g., cutlery).
 Alloys:

o Mixtures of metals with other elements, stronger than pure

metals.

F) Acids, Alkalis, and Titrations

 Indicators:

o Litmus → Red in acid, blue in alkali.

o Phenolphthalein → Colorless in acid, pink in alkali.
o Methyl orange → Red in acid, yellow in alkali.
  pH Scale (0–14):

o Acidic: 0–3 (strong), 4–6 (weak).

o Neutral: 7.
o Alkaline: 8–10 (weak), 11–14 (strong).

 Acids & Alkalis:

o Acids → Release H⁺ ions in solution.

o Alkalis → Release OH⁻ ions in solution.
o Neutralization: Acid + Alkali → Salt + Water.

 Titration:

o Used to determine exact volume of acid needed to neutralize an

alkali.

G) Acids, Bases, and Salt Preparations



Solubility Rules:


o Always Soluble: Sodium, potassium, ammonium compounds; all
nitrates.
o Chlorides: Soluble (except silver, lead).
o Sulfates: Soluble (except barium, calcium, lead).
o Carbonates & Hydroxides: Insoluble (except sodium, potassium,
ammonium).


Acid-Base Reactions:

o Acids = Proton (H⁺) donors, Bases = Proton (H⁺) acceptors.

o Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen.
o Acid + Base → Salt + Water.
o Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + CO₂.

Salt Preparation Methods:

o Soluble Salt → React acid with alkali (titration) or insoluble base

(excess solid method).
o Insoluble Salt → Use precipitation reaction (two soluble
reactants).
o Examples:

 Copper(II) sulfate from copper(II) oxide.

  Lead(II) sulfate from lead(II) nitrate + sodium sulfate.

H) Chemical Tests Summary

Gas Tests

 Hydrogen → Lit splint pops.

 Oxygen → Glowing splint relights.
 Carbon dioxide → Turns limewater milky.
 Ammonia → Damp red litmus turns blue.
 Chlorine → Damp blue litmus turns red, then white (bleaches).

Flame Tests for Metal Ions

 Lithium (Li⁺) → Red 🔴

 Sodium (Na⁺) → Yellow 🟡
 Potassium (K⁺) → Lilac 💜
 Calcium (Ca²⁺) → Orange-red 🟠
 Copper (Cu²⁺) → Blue-green 💙💚

Cation Tests

 Ammonium (NH₄⁺) → Add NaOH, pungent gas evolved (NH₃), turns

litmus blue.
 Copper(II) (Cu²⁺) → Add NaOH, forms blue precipitate.
 Iron(II) (Fe²⁺) → Add NaOH, forms green precipitate.
 Iron(III) (Fe³⁺) → Add NaOH, forms brown precipitate.

Anion Tests

 Chloride (Cl⁻) → Add AgNO₃ + HNO₃, white precipitate.

 Sulfate (SO₄²⁻) → Add BaCl₂ + HCl, white precipitate.
 Carbonate (CO₃²⁻) → Add HCl, bubbles (CO₂), turns limewater milky.

Water Tests

 Chemical test → Add anhydrous CuSO₄, turns blue (from white).

 Physical test → Boiling point = 100°C, Freezing point = 0°C (pure water).

UNIT 03: PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Key Concepts

 Exothermic reactions → Release heat energy (e.g., combustion,

neutralisation).
 Endothermic reactions → Absorb heat energy (e.g., thermal
decomposition).

Experiments & Calculations


 Calorimetry → Measure heat energy changes for reactions
like:

o Combustion
o Displacement
o Dissolving
o Neutralisation

Heat Energy Calculation:

 Q=mcΔTQ = mc\Delta TQ=mcΔT

where:

o Q = heat energy change (J)

o m = mass of water/solution (g)
o c = specific heat capacity (J/g°C)
o ΔT = temperature change (°C)

Molar Enthalpy Change Calculation:

 ΔH=Q\moles of reactant

Energy Level Diagrams

 Exothermic → Reactants higher than products, energy released.

 Endothermic → Products higher than reactants, energy absorbed.

Bond Energy Calculations

 Breaking bonds = Endothermic (+ energy required).

 Making bonds = Exothermic (- energy released).
 Overall: ΔH=∑Bond breaking−∑Bond making

Practical Investigation

 Measure temperature changes in:

o Salts dissolving in water

o Neutralisation reactions
o Displacement reactions
o Combustion reactions

Rates of Reaction
 

Factors affecting rate:


o Surface area (e.g., smaller particles react faster).
o Concentration (higher concentration = faster reaction).
o Temperature (higher temperature = faster reaction).
o Pressure (affects gases; higher pressure = faster reaction).
o Catalysts (increase rate without being consumed).


Collision Theory → Particles must:

o Collide with sufficient energy (Activation Energy, EaE_aEa).

o Have the correct orientation for a successful reaction.

Catalysts:

o Provide an alternative pathway with lower activation energy.

o Chemically unchanged after the reaction.

Reaction Profile Diagrams 📈:

o Show activation energy and enthalpy change (ΔH).

Practical Investigations 🔬:

o Marble chips + hydrochloric acid → Effect of surface area &

concentration.
o Hydrogen peroxide + catalysts → Effect of catalyst type.

Reversible Reactions & Equilibrium


 Reversible reactions ↔️: Can go both forward &
backward.




Examples:

o Dehydration of hydrated copper(II) sulfate.

o Ammonium chloride ⇌ ammonia + hydrogen chloride.

Dynamic Equilibrium (in a closed system):

o Forward & reverse reactions occur at the same rate.

o Concentration of reactants & products stays constant.

Effects on Equilibrium Position 🔄:

o Temperature increase → favors endothermic direction.

o Temperature decrease → favors exothermic direction.
o Pressure increase → favors side with fewer gas molecules.
o Pressure decrease → favors side with more gas molecules.

Catalysts do not affect equilibrium position (only speed it

up!).

UNIT 04: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

A) Introduction to Organic Chemistry

 Hydrocarbons: Compounds made only of hydrogen & carbon.

 Formulae:
o Empirical → simplest ratio (e.g., CH₂ for ethene).
o Molecular → actual number of atoms (e.g., C₂H₄).
o General → pattern for a homologous series (e.g., alkanes: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂).
o Structural & Displayed → how atoms are arranged in a molecule.
 Homologous Series: A family of compounds with:

o Similar chemical properties.

o Gradual change in physical properties.
o Same functional group.
  Isomerism:

o Structural isomers → same molecular formula, different structure.

 IUPAC Naming Rules (up to 6 carbon atoms).

 Reactions of Organic Compounds:

o Addition (e.g., alkene + Br₂ → dibromoalkane).

o Substitution (e.g., alkane + Cl₂ → chloroalkane + HCl under UV).
o Combustion (complete & incomplete).

Crude Oil & Environmental Impact 🌍🔥

Crude Oil Recap

 Mixture of hydrocarbons.
 Fractional distillation separates it into useful fuels.
 Fractions include: refinery gases, petrol, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil,
bitumen.
 Larger molecules → higher boiling point, more viscous, less flammable.
 Combustion:
o Complete → CO₂ + H₂O (good).
o Incomplete → CO (toxic) + C (soot) + H₂O (bad).

Environmental & Health Issues

 Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning:

o Binds to blood → prevents oxygen transport → deadly! 🚨
 Nitrogen Oxides (NOₓ) in Car Engines:

o High temperatures (~600–700°C) allow N₂ + O₂ → NO/NO₂.

o Leads to acid rain & respiratory problems.

 Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂) from Impurities:

o Combustion of sulfur in fuels → SO₂.

o SO₂ + H₂O → Acid Rain (damages buildings, plants & water
bodies).

Cracking of Hydrocarbons

 Why? Demand for shorter alkanes (fuel) is higher than for long ones.
 Process:

o Uses a catalyst (silica/alumina) & heat (600–700°C).

o Breaks long-chain alkanes → shorter alkanes + alkenes.
o Example:
C₁₀H₂₂ → C₈H₁₈ (alkane) + C₂H₄ (alkene)
o Alkenes used for polymers & plastics.

Alkanes vs. Alkenes: A Quick Breakdown

Alkanes (Saturated Hydrocarbons) 🔗

  General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
 Single bonds only → Saturated hydrocarbon
 Naming: Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆), Propane (C₃H₈), Butane (C₄H₁₀),
etc.
 Reactivity: Generally unreactive, but undergo substitution reactions
with halogens (e.g., CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl) under UV light

Alkenes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons) ⚡

 Functional group: C=C (double bond)

 General formula: CₙH₂ₙ
 Naming: Ethene (C₂H₄), Propene (C₃H₆), Butene (C₄H₈), etc.
 Reactivity: More reactive than alkanes, undergo addition reactions

Alkane vs. Alkene Test: Bromine Water

 Alkane: No reaction, stays brown/orange

 Alkene: Decolorizes bromine water (clear) due to addition reaction

o Example: C₂H₄ + Br₂ → C₂H₄Br₂ (dibromoethane)

(e) Alcohols

 Functional group: –OH (hydroxyl group)

 Common examples: Methanol (CH₃OH), Ethanol (C₂H₅OH), Propanol
(C₃H₇OH), Butanol (C₄H₉OH)
 Oxidation of Ethanol:
o Burning in air → Produces CO₂ + H₂O
o Slow oxidation → Forms ethanoic acid.
o Heating with potassium dichromate(VI) in sulfuric acid →
Forms ethanoic acid
 Manufacture of Ethanol:

o Hydration of ethene (steam + phosphoric acid catalyst, 300°C,

60-70 atm)
o Fermentation of glucose (30°C, yeast, anaerobic)

 Fermentation: Uses yeast, works best at 30-40°C, produces CO₂ +

ethanol

(f) Carboxylic Acids

 Functional group: –COOH (carboxyl group)

 Common examples:

o Methanoic acid (HCOOH)

o Ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH)
o Propanoic acid (C₂H₅COOH)
  Reactions:

o With metals → Produces salt + hydrogen gas

o Vinegar = Aqueous ethanoic acid

(g) Esters

 Functional group: –COO–

 Formation: Ethanol + Ethanoic Acid → Ethyl Ethanoate + Water
o Requires an acid catalyst (e.g., sulfuric acid)
 Characteristics:

o Volatile (low boiling points)

o Sweet-smelling → Used in perfumes & food flavorings

 Practical: Making an ester (ethyl ethanoate)

(h) Synthetic Polymers

 Addition polymerisation → Small monomers (alkenes) join together

o Examples:

 Poly(ethene) (polythene)
 Poly(propene) (polypropylene)
 Poly(chloroethene) (PVC)

o Problems: Non-biodegradable, produces toxic gases when

burned

 Condensation polymerisation → Dicarboxylic acid + Diol →

Polyester + Water

o Example: Ethanedioic acid + Ethane-1,2-diol

o Some biopolyesters are biodegradable