Data Transmission

I know terms:

1. I know what is data packets

2. I know packet switching
3. I know various types of data transmission modes
4. I know various methods of data transmission
5. I know Universal serial bus
6. I know benefits and drawbacks of USB
7. I know various error detection methods for received data
8. I know ISBN 13
9. I know modulo-11
10.I know ARQs
11.I know Symmetric and asymmetric encryption

Data Packets

Definition:
A data packet is a discrete unit of data transmitted across a network. It typically consists of a
header containing metadata, a payload containing the actual data, and an optional trailer. Key
metadata within the header includes source and destination addresses, packet type, sequence
number, and error detection mechanisms such as Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRCs). Packet-based
communication enables efficient network resource utilization, error detection and correction,
and flexible routing.

Components of a Data Packet:

1. Header: Contains metadata such as source and destination addresses, packet number, and
protocol information.
2. Payload: The actual data being transported.
3. Footer/Trailer: May include error-checking data like checksums or CRCs (Cyclic
Redundancy Checks).
Purpose:
To efficiently manage and transmit data across networks by breaking it into smaller, manageable
pieces.

Packet Switching

Definition:
Packet switching is a network communication method where data is divided into packets,
transmitted independently, and reassembled at the destination. This approach offers advantages
such as efficient network resource allocation, increased network reliability through redundancy,
and the ability to prioritize different types of traffic.

Process:
1. Data Segmentation: Large messages are broken into smaller packets.
2. Independent Routing: Each packet is sent independently, potentially taking different
paths to the destination.
3. Reassembly: At the destination, packets are reassembled into the original message.

Advantages:
 Efficient use of network resources.
 Reduced latency and better bandwidth utilization.
 Robustness against network failures, as packets can be rerouted.
Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRCs)

Cyclic Redundancy Checks are error detection codes used to ensure data integrity during transmission.
A CRC is calculated based on the data content and appended to the packet. The recipient recalculates
the CRC and compares it to the received value. Any discrepancy indicates potential data corruption.
CRCs are widely employed due to their efficiency and effectiveness in detecting various error patterns.

Process:

1. Generation: A CRC is calculated before data transmission and appended to the data packet.
2. Transmission: The data packet, including the CRC, is transmitted to the receiver.
3. Verification: The receiver recalculates the CRC from the received data and compares it with
the transmitted CRC.
4. Error Detection: If the two CRCs match, the data is considered intact; if not, an error is de-
tected.

Purpose:

 To ensure data integrity during transmission.

Packet Routing

Packet routing is the process of selecting optimal paths for data packets within a network. It involves
forwarding packets between network nodes based on routing protocols and network topology. While
not strictly synonymous with "packet hopping," the latter term can be used informally to describe dy-
namic routing strategies where packets may change paths multiple times during transmission.

Hopping of Data Packets

Definition:

 Hopping refers to the movement of data packets from one network node to another on their way
to the final destination.

Types:

1. Fixed Hopping: Packets follow a predetermined path.

2. Dynamic Hopping: Packets dynamically choose the next hop based on current network condi-
tions.

Mechanism:

 Routing Tables: Network routers use routing tables to determine the best path for each packet.
 Protocols: Various routing protocols (e.g., RIP, OSPF) help manage the hopping process.

Purpose:

 To optimize the routing process and ensure efficient and reliable data delivery.
Data Transmission
Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex

1. Simplex Transmission

 Definition: A type of communication where data flows in only one direction.

 Example: Keyboard to computer.
 Characteristics:
o Unidirectional.
o No feedback or two-way communication.
o Simple and cost-effective.

2. Half-Duplex Transmission

 Definition: A type of communication where data flows in both directions, but not simultane-
ously.
 Example: Walkie-talkies.
 Characteristics:
o Bidirectional, but alternates between sending and receiving.
o Efficient use of the communication channel.
o Requires coordination to switch directions.
 3. Full-Duplex Transmission

 Definition: A type of communication where data flows in both directions simultaneously.

 Example: Telephone calls.
 Characteristics:
o Simultaneous bidirectional communication.
o More complex and potentially more expensive.
o Efficient and fast communication.

Serial and Parallel Data Transmission

1. Serial Data Transmission

 Definition: Data is transmitted one bit at a time over a single channel.

 Example: USB (Universal Serial Bus).
 Characteristics:
o Sequential bit transmission.
o Longer distances with less signal degradation.
o Lower data transfer rates compared to parallel transmission.
o Simpler and cheaper cabling.
2. Parallel Data Transmission

 Definition: Data is transmitted multiple bits at a time over multiple channels.

 Example: Internal communication within a computer (e.g., data buses).
 Characteristics:
o Simultaneous multiple bit transmission.
o Higher data transfer rates.
o Suitable for short distances due to signal degradation and timing issues.
o More complex and expensive cabling.
USB (Universal Serial Bus)

Definition:

 USB is a standard interface used for connecting, communicating, and supplying power be-
tween computers and peripheral devices.

Types:

 USB 1.0/1.1: Low speed (1.5 Mbps) and Full speed (12 Mbps).
 USB 2.0: High speed (480 Mbps).
 USB 3.0/3.1/3.2: SuperSpeed (5 Gbps to 20 Gbps).
 USB-C: Reversible connector, supports USB 3.1/3.2 speeds, and power delivery.

Pros and Cons of USB

Pros:

1. Versatility: Can connect a wide range of devices such as keyboards, mice, storage devices,
printers, and more.
2. Plug and Play: Devices are recognized and configured automatically without the need for
user intervention.
3. Hot Swappable: Devices can be connected and disconnected without needing to restart
the computer.
4. Power Supply: Provides power to connected devices, eliminating the need for separate
power sources for many peripherals.
5. Speed: Supports high data transfer rates, especially with newer versions like USB 3.0 and
USB-C.
Cons:

1. Limited Cable Length: Effective transmission distance is limited, typically up to 5 meters

for USB 2.0 and about 3 meters for USB 3.0/3.1 without repeaters.
2. Bandwidth Sharing: Multiple devices sharing a single USB hub can experience reduced
data transfer rates due to shared bandwidth.
3. Compatibility Issues: Newer USB standards may not be fully compatible with older de-
vices or systems, requiring adapters or hubs.
4. Power Limitations: While USB can supply power, the amount is limited, which may not
be sufficient for all devices, especially those requiring high power.

Wires of USB

Standard USB Cable Components:

1. VCC (Power): Usually red, provides +5V power to the connected device.
2. Ground (GND): Usually black, serves as the ground reference.
3. Data+ (D+): Usually green, carries data.
4. Data- (D-): Usually white, carries data.

Error Detection Techniques

Parity Check

Definition:

 A parity check is an error detection method that uses parity bits to ensure data integrity
during transmission.

Types:

1. Even Parity: The number of 1s in the data plus the parity bit is even.
2. Odd Parity: The number of 1s in the data plus the parity bit is odd.
Process:

1. Parity Bit Calculation: A parity bit is added to the data before transmission to make the
total number of 1s either even or odd.
2. Verification: At the receiving end, the parity is checked. If the parity does not match the
expected value, an error is detected.

Advantages:

 Simple to implement.
 Efficient for single-bit error detection.

Disadvantages:

 Cannot detect errors if an even number of bits are flipped.

Parity Check Example

Scenario: We have a 7-bit data sequence, and we want to add a parity bit to ensure error detec-
tion using even parity.

Data Sequence: 1011001

Step-by-Step Process:

1. Calculate the Number of 1s:

o Count the number of 1s in the data sequence: 1011001
o Number of 1s = 4
2. Determine the Parity Bit for Even Parity:
o Since we are using even parity, the total number of 1s (including the parity bit)
should be even.
o Current number of 1s = 4 (even number), so the parity bit should be 0 to keep the
total even.
3. Add the Parity Bit:
o Append the parity bit to the original data sequence: 1011001 becomes 10110010

Transmitted Data: 10110010

Receiver's Process:

1. Receive the Data Sequence:

o The receiver gets the 8-bit data sequence: 10110010
2. Check the Number of 1s:
o Count the number of 1s in the received sequence: 10110010
 o Number of 1s = 4
3. Verify Even Parity:
o Since we are using even parity, the number of 1s should be even.
o The received sequence has 4 ones, which is even.

Conclusion:

 No error is detected in the received data sequence.

Error Example:

Transmitted Data: 10110010

Received Data (with error): 10111010

1. Check the Number of 1s:

o Count the number of 1s in the received sequence: 10111010
o Number of 1s = 5
2. Verify Even Parity:
o The number of 1s is 5, which is odd.

Conclusion:

 An error is detected because the number of 1s is not even as expected.

Checksum

Definition:

 A checksum is an error-detecting code used to detect errors in data by calculating a sum of

the data values.

Process:

1. Checksum Calculation: Before transmission, the data is divided into equal-sized blocks,
and the values of these blocks are summed to produce a checksum value.
2. Transmission: The data along with the checksum is transmitted to the receiver.
3. Verification: The receiver recalculates the checksum from the received data blocks and
compares it with the transmitted checksum. If they do not match, an error is detected.

Advantages:

 Detects many types of errors, including multiple-bit errors.

 Suitable for larger blocks of data.

Disadvantages:
  Less effective for detecting certain types of errors, such as rearranged blocks.

Echo Check

Definition:

 An echo check is an error detection method where the received data is sent back to the
sender for verification.

Process:

1. Transmission: The sender transmits the data to the receiver.

2. Echo: The receiver sends the data back to the sender.
3. Verification: The sender compares the original data with the echoed data. If there is a
mismatch, an error is detected.

Advantages:

 Simple to implement.
 Immediate verification of data integrity.

Disadvantages:

 Doubles the amount of data transmission, increasing bandwidth usage.

 Not effective if errors occur during the echo transmission.

Check Digit
Definition:

 A check digit is a form of redundancy check used for error detection on identification
numbers, such as ISBNs, credit card numbers, etc.
ISBN-13 Check Digit

Definition:

 The ISBN-13 check digit is used to ensure the accuracy of an International Standard Book
Number (ISBN), which is a 13-digit code.

Calculation Process:

1. Position Weighting: Assign weights to each of the first 12 digits in the ISBN. The weights
alternate between 1 and 3.
o Example: For ISBN 978-0-306-40615-7, the first 12 digits are 978030640615.
2. Multiply and Sum: Multiply each digit by its respective weight and sum the results.
o Calculation: (9×1) + (7×3) + (8×1) + (0×3) + (3×1) + (0×3) + (6×1) + (4×3) + (0×1)
+ (6×3) + (1×1) + (5×3)
o Sum: 9 + 21 + 8 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 6 + 12 + 0 + 18 + 1 + 15 = 93
3. Modulo Operation: Compute the modulo 10 of the sum.
o Modulo: 93 % 10 = 3
4. Calculate Check Digit: Subtract the modulo result from 10 to get the check digit. If the re-
sult is 10, the check digit is 0.
o Check Digit: 10 - 3 = 7

Modulo-11 Check Digit

Definition:

 The Modulo-11 check digit method is commonly used for various identification numbers,
including International Standard Serial Numbers (ISSN).

Calculation Process:

1. Position Weighting: Assign weights to each digit starting from 2 up to 10, in descending
order from the rightmost digit.
o Example: For number 123456789, the digits are weighted as follows: 1(10), 2(9),
3(8), 4(7), 5(6), 6(5), 7(4), 8(3), 9(2).
2. Multiply and Sum: Multiply each digit by its respective weight and sum the results.
o Calculation: (1×10) + (2×9) + (3×8) + (4×7) + (5×6) + (6×5) + (7×4) + (8×3) +
(9×2)
o Sum: 10 + 18 + 24 + 28 + 30 + 30 + 28 + 24 + 18 = 210
3. Modulo Operation: Compute the modulo 11 of the sums.
o Modulo: 210 % 11 = 1
4. Calculate Check Digit: Subtract the modulo result from 11 to get the check digit. If the re-
sult is 10, the check digit is X; if the result is 11, the check digit is 0.
o Check Digit: 11 - 1 = 10 (so the check digit is X)
Checking if an ISBN-13 Number is Correct

Example ISBN-13: 978-0-306-40615-7

Step-by-Step Verification Process:

1. Remove Hyphens: Write the ISBN without hyphens.

o ISBN: 9780306406157
2. Identify the Digits: The first 12 digits are used for calculation.
o First 12 digits: 978030640615
o Check digit: 7
3. Assign Weights: Assign weights to each digit, alternating between 1 and 3.
o Position: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
o Digits: 9 7 8 0 3 0 6 4 0 6 1 5
o Weights: 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3
4. Multiply and Sum: Multiply each digit by its respective weight and sum the results.
o Calculation:
 (9 × 1) = 9
 (7 × 3) = 21
 (8 × 1) = 8
 (0 × 3) = 0
 (3 × 1) = 3
 (0 × 3) = 0
 (6 × 1) = 6
 (4 × 3) = 12
 (0 × 1) = 0
 (6 × 3) = 18
 (1 × 1) = 1
 (5 × 3) = 15
o Total Sum:
 9 + 21 + 8 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 6 + 12 + 0 + 18 + 1 + 15 = 93
5. Modulo Operation: Calculate the modulo 10 of the total sum.
o Modulo: 93 % 10 = 3
6. Calculate Check Digit: Subtract the modulo result from 10 to find the expected check
digit. If the result is 10, the check digit is 0.
o Expected Check Digit: 10 - 3 = 7
7. Comparison: Compare the expected check digit with the provided check digit.
o Expected Check Digit: 7
o Provided Check Digit: 7

Conclusion

 Since the expected check digit (7) matches the provided check digit (7), the ISBN 978-0-
306-40615-7 is valid.
Example: Verifying a Modulo-11 Number

Given Number: 123456789X

Step 1: Identify the Check Digit

 In this example, the check digit is X, which represents the value 10.

Step 2: Assign Weights

 The weights are assigned in descending order starting from 10 down to 2, corresponding
to each digit in the number (excluding the check digit).

Digit Weight
1 10
2 9
3 8
4 7
5 6
6 5
7 4
8 3
9 2

Step 3: Multiply Each Digit by Its Weight and Sum the Results

 Calculation:

(1×10) =10

(2×9) =18

(3×8) =24

(4×7) =28

(5×6) =30

(6×5) =30

(7×4) =28

(8×3) =24

(9×2) =18
Sum:

10+18+24+28+30+30+28+24+18=210

Step 4: Compute the Modulo 11 of the Sum

 Calculate:

210 mod 11=1

Step 5: Verify the Check Digit

 According to the Modulo-11 rule:

o If the result is 10, the check digit should be X.
o If the result is 11, the check digit should be 0.
o If the result is less than 10, the check digit should match that number.

In this case:

 Result: 1
 Expected Check Digit: 1 (since X represents 10, and the result is 1, which does not match.)

Step 6: Conclusion

 The check digit in the original number 123456789X does not match the expected check
digit based on our calculation.
 Therefore, 123456789X is not a valid Modulo-11 number.

Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQ)

Definition:

 Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQ) is an error control method used in data communication
to ensure the reliable transmission of data. It involves the automatic detection and re-
transmission of erroneous data packets.

Key Concepts

1. Basic Operation:

 Transmission: Data packets are sent from the sender to the receiver.
 Acknowledgment (ACK): The receiver sends an acknowledgment back to the sender for
successfully received packets.
 Negative Acknowledgment (NAK): If a packet is received with errors, the receiver sends
a NAK to indicate the need for retransmission.
Advantages of ARQ

1. Error Detection and Correction: Ensures that data is transmitted accurately, improving
overall communication reliability.
2. Efficiency: Allows for multiple packets to be sent before requiring an acknowledgment (in
Go-Back-N and Selective Repeat ARQ), increasing throughput.
3. Adaptability: Can be used in various types of networks, including wireless and wired
communication systems.

Disadvantages of ARQ

1. Increased Latency: Retransmission of erroneous packets can introduce delays, especially

in Stop-and-Wait ARQ.
2. Bandwidth Utilization: In scenarios with high error rates, frequent retransmissions can
lead to inefficient use of bandwidth.
3. Complexity: More advanced ARQ protocols (Go-Back-N and Selective Repeat) require ad-
ditional mechanisms for managing packets, increasing implementation complexity.

Definition of Encryption:
 Encryption is the process of converting plaintext (readable data) into ciphertext (encoded
data) to prevent unauthorized access.

Symmetric Encryption

Definition:

 Symmetric encryption uses the same key for both encryption and decryption of data.

Key Characteristics:

1. Single Key: The same secret key is used for both encryption and decryption.
2. Speed: Generally faster than asymmetric encryption, making it suitable for large amounts
of data.
3. Key Distribution Problem: Securely sharing the key between the sender and receiver
can be challenging, as anyone with the key can decrypt the data.

Common Algorithms:

 AES (Advanced Encryption Standard): A widely used symmetric encryption standard.

  DES (Data Encryption Standard): An older standard that is now considered less secure
due to shorter key lengths.
 Triple DES: An improvement over DES that applies the encryption process three times for
enhanced security.

Use Cases:

 Used for encrypting data at rest (e.g., files on a hard drive) and data in transit (e.g., secure
communication channels).

Asymmetric Encryption

Definition:

 Asymmetric encryption uses a pair of keys for encryption and decryption: a public key and
a private key.

Key Characteristics:

1. Key Pair: Each user has a public key (shared openly) and a private key (kept secret).
2. Security: The public key encrypts the data, while only the corresponding private key can
decrypt it, enhancing security.
3. Slower Speed: Generally slower than symmetric encryption, making it less suitable for
large amounts of data.

Common Algorithms:

 RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman): A widely used asymmetric encryption algorithm for se-

cure data transmission.
 ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography): Provides similar security to RSA with shorter key
lengths, improving efficiency.

Use Cases:

 Commonly used for secure key exchange, digital signatures, and encrypting small amounts
of data (e.g., SSL/TLS for secure web browsing).

Comparison of Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption

Feature Symmetric Encryption Asymmetric Encryption

Single key for both encryption and de-
Key Usage Key pair (public and private keys)
cryption
Speed Faster Slower
Feature Symmetric Encryption Asymmetric Encryption
Key Distribu-
Requires secure sharing of the key Public key can be shared openly
tion
Secure key exchange, digital signa-
Use Cases Large data encryption
tures

 Plaintext:

 Plaintext refers to the original, readable data or message that is input for encryption.
 It can be any form of data, including text, numbers, or files, and is in a format that can be easily
understood by humans or systems.

 Ciphertext:

 Ciphertext is the result of the encryption process, where plaintext is transformed into an unread-
able format using an encryption algorithm and a key.
 This data appears as a random sequence of characters and cannot be understood without decryp-
tion.

Relationship Between Plaintext and Ciphertext

 Encryption Process: The transformation from plaintext to ciphertext occurs through an encryp-
tion algorithm that uses a specific key.
 Decryption Process: To revert ciphertext back to plaintext, a decryption algorithm is used
along with the appropriate key.

Concept behind Encryption

What is Encryption?

Encryption is like a secret code for your data. It involves transforming information into a format
that looks like gibberish using a specific algorithm. This makes it challenging (if not impossible)
for unauthorized folks—like hackers—to understand the data unless they have the right “de-
coder ring” (i.e., decryption tools). So, think of encryption as your data’s invisibility cloak!

Symmetric Encryption

In symmetric encryption, both parties (let’s call them Alice and Bob) share an identical secret
key. This key can be used to both encrypt and decrypt information.

Here’s how it works:

1. Key Distribution Problem: The tricky part is getting that secret key to the other party
without compromising security. Imagine if a hacker intercepted the key—yikes!
 o Verbal Sharing: Alice and Bob could meet in person and whisper the key to each
other. (Imagine them huddled in a dimly lit café, exchanging secrets like interna-
tional spies.)
o Snail Mail: Alternatively, they could send the key via old-fashioned postal mail.
(Yes, even in our digital age, snail mail still has its moments!)
o Algorithmic Calculation: They might use some non-key information to calculate
the key. It’s like a secret handshake between them.
2. Encryption Walkthrough:
o Alice wants to send Bob a message. She encrypts it using their shared secret key.
o She sends the encrypted message to Bob.
o Bob uses the same key to decrypt the message and reveal its original content.

Remember, symmetric encryption doesn’t prevent data theft—it just makes it really hard for
hackers to decipher the stolen data. Strong modern keys can be over 1000 bits long!

Asymmetric Encryption (a.k.a. Public Key Encryption)

Now, let’s meet asymmetric encryption. It’s like having a magical lock with two keys:

 Public Key: Everyone knows this key. It’s like leaving your front door unlocked during a
neighbourhood block party.
 Private Key: Only the receiver (Bob) knows this one. It’s like the secret trapdoor in the
floor that leads to the treasure room.

Here’s how asymmetric encryption works:

1. Person A (Alice):
o Uses Bob’s public key to encrypt her message.
o Sends the encrypted message to Bob.
2. Bob (the Receiver):
o Uses his private key (which only he knows) to unlock the message and read it.

And voilà! Secure communication without sharing secret keys all over town.