1.
Genetic variation :
A) mutation
B) independent assortment
C) crossing over
D) random matting
E) random fertilisation
2. Environmental influence :
A) temperature
B) availability of water
C) diet
D) pH of the soil / minerals
Variation caused by environment is not
passed by parents to their offsprings
3. Combination of both genes
and environment
Environment regulates the
degree of gene expression.
Example : wont achieve the
FULL POTENTIAL OF
GROWTH
Types of variation
Variation can be phenotypic or genotypic differences .
Phenotypic variation is ; differences between the observable characteristics of individuals
within
species
can be morphological, anatomical, physiological , biochemical and behavioral variation
Genotypic variation occurs because genes have two or more alleles .
Phenotypic variation We can identify phenotypic variation at two levels ;
A) interspecific variation: Differences between different species , used to classify different
species
Same B) intra specific variation : variation within a species , used in understanding of
selection and evolution
Importance of variation ( intra specific variation Two)
1. high genetic diversity
2. larger gene pool ( complete range of DNA base sequences in all living organsims in a
species or population )
3. Increase chance of adapation to new environmental conditions
4. so more selection and evolution
5. Less competition ( by occupying different niche )
6. Thus increasing survival chance
Thus reducing risk of extinction
Notice :
Biodiversity = genetic diversity + species
diversity + habitat diversity
Intra specific variation can be
Types of phenotypic variation
1. Discontinuous variation
2. Continuous variation
es a TX
↳e
fr
. Discontinuous variation . Continuous variation
Distinct ( limited number) phenotypes with no
intermediates....qualitative differences
Controlled by one gene only ( or at most very few
genes)and not affected by environment ( little or
no effect) .
Usually represented on bar graph
Example: you have one of four possible ABO
blood groups: A, B, AB or O,
sex or rolling tongue
Non discrete phenotype ( range of phenotypes) where
intermediates connect extremes , phenotypes don’t fall into a
distinct groups ...quantitative differences
• controlled by combined effect of many genes on different
loci ( polygenic inheritance)
• And controlled by environment such as nutrients , light
intensity
• Different alleles at a single gene locus have a small effect
on phenotype
Usually represented on histogram showing normal
distribution ( intermediated connect the extremes )
Human height ,
intelligence , fitness
Continue with Continuous variation
• phenotype appears not to fall into distinct classes , with intermediates connecting extremes
• Showing a quantitative differences
• for example height and mass
• Continuous variation is determined by genes and by the environment
• Not controlled by a single gene , but many genes at different loci ( polygenes )
• Where this feature shows a polygenic trait , phenotypic character is controlled by combined
effect of
several genes at different loci And the environment
• environmental factors Such as ( light intensity , water , nutrients availability )
• Which have an effect of smoothing out the variation to give normal distribution ( bell shape
) curve
• Phenotype with No distinct
class, non discrete.
• Intermediates connect
extremes
• Quantitative
• Genes and environment
• Polygenic inheritance +
definition
• Environmental factors
smoothing out to give normal
distribution
Environmental factors effects on the phenotype Read to understand
A. The phenotype ( final appearance ) of an organism is the result of the genotype and the
effect of the 3
environment upon it .
B. Because environmental influences , e.g. temperature and light intensity , are them selves
very various and
because they form gradations , they are responsible for continuous variation within a
population.
C. Example : mass , size or height .
Factors controlling
degree of gene
expression
D. Where environmental variation is Acquired by starvation,
malnutrition, lack of exercises, diseases, smoking .
Example
1. if mother is malnourished or the placenta is not very effective, the
fetus may be deprived of vital nutrients and not achieve its full potential
for growth.
2. If mother smokes, her fetus will be deprived of oxygen and this in
turn affects the growth of body and brain.
3. Also some drugs and serious illness can cause serious
consequences for the phenotype of fetus. 4. Height ( influenced by
lack of nutrients , disease )
Factors controlling
gene expression:
E. Environment may trigger / switch on genes
Example :
1. Effect of temperature on changing animal color as in case of Siamese cats
2. Wave length of light and flowering color.
F. environment has usually more effect on phenotypes controlled by polygenes, (polygenetic
inheritance)
which are group of genes that produces specific phenotype only when expressed together,
as polygenes
give wide range of traits showing continuous variation.
The genotype determines the range of possible phenotypes , but the environment often
determines where
within that range the actual appearance of an organism lies.
G. Environment may induce mutation which affects the phenotype . For example ultraviolet
radiation from
the sun or tanning lamps can disrupt DNA replication and lead t production of melanomas in
skin .
Melanomas are form of skin cancer which causes changes to the appearance and patterning
of moles
on the skin.
Example of environment affects phenotype
• Full potential of height
• Gene and environment
• Continuous variation
• Genetic factors : polygenic ( combined effect of several genes at different loci )
• Example of some genes
• Environmental factors diet ( vitamin D and calcium ) , stretching sports , chronic diseases
Inheritance of height :
• the achievement of genetic potential of height is controlled by several genetic factors as
well as environment
• Where height is an example of continuous variation
• Genetic factors :
• meaning a polygenic feature ( phenotype is due to combined effect of several genes at
different loci ) where
different genes affect different factors related to size
• such as gender, length of bones in legs , or size of vertebrae , Also genes control
production of growth
hormone and rate of bone growth
• Environmental factors that affect height such as
A) diet containing calcium and vitamin D
B) Presence of chronic diseases and infections
C) Stretch sports.
genes
say
i
Theory of evolution
1. General Theory of evolution : is Organisms have changed over time Due to natural
selection
2. Selection pressure : an environmental factor that affects the chance of survival of an
organisms
3. Allele frequency : frequency by which a particular allele appear in a population
Organisms change over time
1. Over population where the organisms of all species produce many offsprings ...this is
needed to maintain the
population
2. Population remains fairly constant over time
3. Genetic variation within species ( intra specific variation )
4. Caused by RANDOM / SPONTANEOUS MUTATION introducing a favorable allele for
desirable trait ( which is X )
5. Struggle for existence as individuals compete on resources
6. Presence of selection pressure ( predation / poison / cold temperature / competition / food
availability/ space )
Example : Those with large bills have selective advantage in finding food .
7. Individuals with advantageous allele will survive as they better /more adapted to survive
....selection of the fittest
8. Surviving individuals will reproduce /breed passing on the advantageous allele To coming
generations
9. Change in the allele frequency over generations
10 . Due to natural selection some species become markedly different to extent that they
cant reproduce with original
population ( member of this species ) ....reproductive isolation .....leading speciation
Steps of natural selection
3. Genetic variation within a species ( intra specific variation )
4. Caused by RANDOM / SPONTANEOUS mutation introducing a favorable allele for a
desirable trait ( which is
X)
6. Presence of selection pressure ( predation / poison / cold temperature / competition / food
availability /
space ) ......should be described
Mention : those with large bills have selective advantage in finding food
7. Individuals with advantageous allele ( show desirable trait ) will survive as they better
/more adapted to survive
....selection of the fittest ......mention how adapted ......../ .......has a selective advantage
where better able to feed
on small shrubs , better camouflaged .
8. Surviving individuals will reproduce /breed passing on the advantageous allele To coming
generations
9. Change in the allele frequency over generations ..showing an increase in frequency of
advantageous allele .
Important zay ur name
Selection pressure :
every organism faces a process of selection based the suitability of the
organism to survive the conditions existing at this time
Environmental factors that act on and limit a population of a species ......
selection pressure
Examples :
1. Predation
2. Extreme temperature ( climatic change )
3. Availability of food
4. Shelter / competition for space ( to breed and rear
their youngs )
5. No pollinators
6. Disease
7. Need of light , water , oxygen , minerals .
Height ...polygenic inheritance
Example : controlled by two unlinked genes ...
Gene 1 : A /a
Gene 2 : B/b
a, b ....recessive .....+X cm
A, B dominant........ +2X cm
AB Ab aB ab
AB
Ab
aB
ab
AABB AABb AaBB AaBb
AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb
AaBB AaBb aaBB AaBb
AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb
2x 4X
--
---
AABB = zcm
AaBB = 7cm
excm .
7xm,
Axcm ExcmAuBb = ocm
- Aabb = 5cm
Fem 6xcmExcm 5xcm
aabb = ucm
zcm&
AAbb = aaBB=AaBb &
Gam .
um.
• Example :inheritance of height
• Suppose that the height of an organism is controlled by two unlinked (that is, on different
chromosomes)
• genes: A/a and B/b.
1. The recessive alleles of both genes (a and b) each contribute x cm to the height of the
organism.
2. The dominant alleles (A and B) each add 2x cm.
• Since the effect of such genes is additive, the homozygote recessive (aabb) is therefore
potentially 4x cm tall and the homozygote dominant (AABB) is potentially 8x cm tall.
• The other genotypes will fall between these extremes.
Interbreeding these
potentially 6x cm tall
offspring gives all
possible genotypes
and phenotypes
among the16
possibilities.
The number of
offspring and their
potential heights
according to their
genotypes are
summarised in the
histogram in Figure
17.3. These results
fall approximately
on a normal
distribution curve.
These hypothetical results come from assuming that two
unlinked genes, each with two alleles, contribute
to the height of the organism. Think about what would
happen to the quantitative character if more genes, each
with an additive effect, were involved (polygenes). The
genes may have more than two alleles. Suppose that all
the genes affecting height are on different chromosomes:
the number of discrete height classes increases as more
genes are involved and the differences between these
classes get less. Even if two or more of the genes are
linked on the same chromosome (Chapter 16, page 383),
potentially reducing the number of classes of offspring
and increasing the difference between them, crossing
over in meiosis will restore the variation. The differences
between different classes will be further smoothed out by
environmental effects, as discussed in the next section.
185
Dr. Nihal Gabr
Dr.Nihal Gabr
mum
Read to understand
Types of selection
Three types of election
Stabilising selection Directional selection Disruptive selection
Selection pressure
Selected against
Selective advantage
-those with mean body mass have a
selective advantage
-While selection against the
extremes of body mass
-Constant environmental factors
-Stabilizing selection, natural
selection that tends to keep the allele
frequency relatively constant over
many generations .
-Those with extreme large body
mass have a selective advantage
-while selection against / pressure
those with very small body mass
-environmental factors changes ( so
selection pressure)
-directional selection, natural
selection that causes a change in
allele frequency over many
generations.
• Selection pressure favors the extremes
of the range in body mass ....lead to
speciation
• Selection is against the most common
body mass .
Natural selection that maintains relatively
high frequencies of two different sets of
alleles , individuals with intermdeiate features
and alleles are not selected for /are
selected against
