TOPIC 2; *INHERITED CHANGE AND EVOLUTION*:
NATURAL SELECTION :
*Main objective*
;
- _explain using examples how mutations and environment
may affect phenotype_ ?
-
*Natural selection*
Darwin and Wallace proposed that natural
selection is the mechanism by which new species arise from
pre-existing species. This hypothesis/theory is basedon three
observations and two deductions which may be
summarized as follows.
Observation 1: Individuals within a population produce on
average more ofispring than are needed to replace themselves.
Observation 2: The numbers of individuals in a
population remain approximately constant.
Deduction 1: Many individuals fail to survive or
reproduce. There is a 'struggle for existence' within
a population.
Observation 3: Variation exists within all populations.
Deduction 2: In the 'struggle for existence' those
individuals showing variations best adapted to their
environment have a 'reproductive advantage and produce
more offspring than less well-adapted organisms.
Deduction 2 offers a hypothesis called natural selection
which provides a mechanism accounting for evolution.
*Explaining how mutations may affect phenotype.*
Mutation is change in the DNA sequence of an organism. This
can occur due to errors during DNA replication or repair, or
as a result of environmental factors such as radiation or
chemicals."
here are some examples of how mutations can affect
phenotype:
*Examples:*
1. *Sickle Cell Anemia*: A point mutation in the HBB gene
changes a glutamic acid codon to a valine codon, resulting in
abnormal hemoglobin production and sickle-shaped red blood
cells.
2. *Cystic Fibrosis*: A deletion mutation in the CFTR gene
leads to the production of a defective protein, causing thick,
sticky mucus to build up in the lungs and digestive tract.
3. *Antibiotic Resistance*: A mutation in the bacterial gene
that codes for the target protein of an antibiotic can lead to
the production of a modified protein, making the bacteria
resistant to the antibiotic.
4. *Albinism*: A mutation in the TYR gene that codes for the
enzyme tyrosinase can lead to a lack of melanin production,
resulting in pale skin, hair, and eyes
*5.Phenylketonuria* (PKU)*
PKU is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation in the PAH
gene, which codes for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase.
*Normal Function:*
The enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase converts the amino
acid phenylalanine (Phe) into tyrosine.
*Effect of Mutation:*
The mutation in the PAH gene leads to a deficiency of the
enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, resulting in:
- Accumulation of phenylalanine in the blood and tissues
- Reduced production of tyrosine
*Phenotypic Effects:*
If left untreated, PKU can lead to:
- Intellectual disability
- Seizures
- Behavioral problems
- Delayed speech and language development
- Pale skin
- Hair loss
*Treatment:*
PKU can be managed through:
- Dietary restriction of phenylalaninemia
- Supplementation with tyrosine
*Example of Mutation Affecting Phenotype:*
*The mutation in the PAH gene that causes PKU is an example
of how a mutation can affect phenotype. The mutation leads to
a deficiency of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, which
in turn affects the metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine.
This leads to a range of phenotypic effects, including
intellectual disability, seizures, and behavioral problems.
*
This example illustrates how a mutation in a single gene can
have a significant impact on an individual's phenotype, and
how treatment can help manage the condition.
*Explaining how the environment may affect phenotype*
Let's say for example;
• The height of humans is determined by the range of alleles for
height that each
of us inherits from our parents. However, even if our alleles
allow us to go
tall, our diet will influence whether we do so. For example, a
lack of calcium
phosphate or poor overall nutrition especially at critical
growth periods (early years and adolescence) may prevent
maximum bone and body growth and so we fail to realize our
full potential height.You can also talk of plants , for example
that a maize plant may contain genes to grow tall but if it is
grown in soils with low fertility, then the maize is restricted to
reach its genotypic height, so the environment has affected the
phenotype of that maize plant.
And a genotype is the genetic make up of an organism.
- explain, with examples, how environmental factors act as
forces of natural selection
* Natural selection
* Environmental factors
SELECTION
This is a mechanism that can be thought of as operating at two
interrelated levels, at the level of the
organism and at the level of the alleles.
Selection is the process by which those organisms which
appear physically, physiologically and behaviourally better
adapted to the environment survive and reproduce; those
organisms not so well adapted either fail to reproduce or die.
The former organisms pass on their successful characteristics
to the next generation, whereas the latter do not.
Selection depends upon the existence of phenotypic variation
within the population and is part of the mechanism by which a
species adapts to its environment.
When a population increases in size,certain environmental
factors become limiting, such as food availability in animals
and light in the case of plants. This produces competition for
resources between members of the population. Those
organisms exhibiting characteristics which give them a
competitive advantage will obtain the
resource, survive and reproduce. Organisms without those
characteristics are at a disadvantage and may die before
reproducing. Both the environment and population size
operate together to produce a selection pressure which can
vary in intensity.
Therefore, selection is the process determining which alleles
are passed on to the next generation by virtue of the
relative advantages they show when expressed as phenotypes.
Selection pressure can then be seen as a means
of increasing or decreasing the spread of an allele within the
gene pool and these changes in allele frequency can
lead to evolutionary change.
There are three types of selection process occurring natural
and artificial populations and they are described as
stabilising, directional and disruptive. They may be best
explained in terms of the normal distribution curve
associated with the continuous phenotypic variation found
in natural populations.
Stabilising selection
This operates when phenotypic features
coincide with optimal environmental conditions and
competition is not severe. It occurs in all populations and
tends to eliminate extremes from the population. For example,
there is an optimum wing length for a hawk of a
particular size with a certain mode of life in a given
environment. Stabilising selection, operating through
differences in breeding potential, will eliminate those
hawks with wing spans larger or smaller than this optimum
length.Stabilising selection pressures do not promote
evolutionary change but tend to maintain phenotypic stability
within the population from generation to generation.
Directional selection
This form of selection operates in response to gradual changes
in environmental conditions. It operates on the range of
phenotypes existing within the population and exerts selection
pressure which moves the mean phenotype towards one
phenotypic extreme. Once the mean phenotype coincides with
the new optimum environmental conditions, stabilising
selection will take over.
This kind of selection brings about evolutionary change by
producing a selection pressure which favours the increase in
frequency of new alleles within the population. Directional
selection forms the basis of artificial selection where the
selective breeding of phenotypes showing desirable traits
increases the frequency of those phenotypes within the
population.
Disruptive selection
This is probably the rarest form of selection but can be very
important in bringing about evolutionary
change. Fluctuating conditions within an environment, say
associated with season and climate, may favour the presence
of more than one phenotype within a population. Selection
pressures acting from within the population as a result of
increased competition may push the phenotypes away from the
population mean towards the extremes of the population. This
can split a population into two subpopulations. If gene flow
between the subpopulations is
prevented, each population may give rise to a new species. In
some cases this form of selection can give rise to the
appearance of different phenotypes within a population, a
phenomenon known as polymorphism (poly, many;
morphos, form),
Artificial selection
Humans have practised artificial selection in
the form of the domestication of animals and plants. Darwin
used evidence
from artificial selection to account for the mechanism
whereby changes in species could arise in natural
populations, that is natural selection. The basis of artificial
selection is the isolation of natural populations and the
traits which have some usefulness to humans. In the caseof
cattle, the Hereford and Aberdeen Angus breeds have been
selected for the quality and quantity of their meat, whereas
Jersey and Guernsey cows are favoured for their milk yield.
Hampshire and Suffolk sheep mature early and produce a
good quality meat but lack the hardiness and foraging
ability of the Cheviot and Scotch Blackface. The latter
examples show that no single breed has all the
characteristics necessary for the best economic yield under all
conditions and therefore a Planned programme of selective
breeding is often practised to increase the quality
of the breed and the yield.
In artificial selection humans are exerting a directional
selection pressure which leads to changes in allele and
genotype frequencies within the population. This is an
evolutionary mechanism which gives rise to new breeds,
strains, varieties, races, subspecies .in all cases these groups
have isolated gene pools ,but they have retained
the basic gene and chromosomal structure which is
characteristic of the species to which they still belong.
Types Artificial selection
1. inbreeding
2. outbreeding
Natural selection Notes prepared by
brodunmore
[email protected] .
