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B13 Variation
Variation refers to the differences that exist between individuals of the same
species. For example, in a classroom, everyone has different heights, hair
types, or blood groups. These differences are due to variation.
There are two main types of variation:
1. Discontinuous Variation
● Produces a limited number of distinct categories or phenotypes,
with no in-between (intermediate) values.
● Individuals clearly fit into one specific group.
● Classic examples:
○ Tongue-rolling: You can either roll your tongue or you can't.
There's no "half-rolling."
○ Blood groups: Everyone has one of four definite blood types: A, B,
AB, or O. There are no intermediate blood types.
● Typical Graph: Usually shown with a bar graph where the bars have
gaps between them, because each category is separate and distinct.
2. Continuous Variation
● Phenotypes exist along a seamless scale, meaning every
intermediate value is possible between two extremes.
● There are no definite categories; individuals can fall anywhere within a
range.
● Textbook example:
○ Human height: People's heights vary greatly. You can be 160 cm,
160.1 cm, 160.2 cm, and so on. There are no fixed height
"categories" you must fit into.
● Typical Graph: Can be shown as a histogram (frequency diagram)
where the bars touch each other (because the scale is continuous),
or as a bell-shaped curve (normal distribution) where most
individuals are around the average, and fewer are at the extremes.
Variation type Phenotype pattern Typical graph
Discontinuous Distinct categories, no Bar graph with gaps
intermediates
Continuous Full range of values, Histogram or bell-
intermediates present shaped curve
Mutation
A mutation is a sudden, random change in a gene's DNA sequence.
● Mutations are the sole source of new alleles.
● This means they are the only way brand-new characteristics or
traits can appear in a species that weren't there before.
● Because they introduce new alleles, mutations provide the raw
material on which natural selection can act. Without mutations, there
would be no new variations for selection to choose from.
Natural Selection
Natural selection is a fundamental process in evolution where individuals that
have traits (due to their alleles) that make them better adapted to their
environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. This causes those
advantageous alleles to become more common in the population over many
generations.
It can be understood through four key steps:
. Variation: Individuals within a species are not identical; they show
genetic differences. Some of these differences might affect their
ability to survive or thrive.
○ Example: Some pygmy seahorses might have slightly better
camouflage than others.
. Overproduction: Organisms typically produce more offspring than
the environment can support.
○ Example: A zebra mare produces a foal, but only about 50% of
zebra foals reach adulthood.
. Struggle for Existence: Because resources (like food, water, space)
are limited, individuals have to compete. This competition, along with
threats like predators or diseases, means that not all offspring will
survive to reproduce. Better-adapted individuals have a higher chance
of survival.
○ Example: A pygmy seahorse with poor camouflage might be easily
eaten by a predator.
. Differential Reproductive Success: Individuals with advantageous
alleles (traits that help them survive) are more likely to live long
enough to reproduce and pass on those beneficial alleles to their
offspring. Over generations, these advantageous alleles become more
frequent in the population.
○ Example: The well-camouflaged seahorses survive, reproduce,
and pass on their camouflage genes, making the population better
camouflaged over time.
Illustrative Examples of Natural Selection:
● Pygmy Seahorse: These tiny seahorses are pink and white, perfectly
camouflaged among the sea fans where they live. Individuals with
slightly better camouflage are less likely to be seen and eaten by
●
predators, thus surviving to reproduce more.
● Tuna: Tuna are fast-swimming predators with streamlined bodies and
many mitochondria in their muscle cells (which provide energy for
swimming). Tuna with more mitochondria can swim faster, making
them better at catching prey and escaping predators, leading to
higher reproductive success.
● Zebras: The stripes on zebras may help deter biting flies. A zebra foal
born with a disadvantageous trait, like a spotted pattern instead of
stripes, might have reduced survival because it's more susceptible to
flies, illustrating selection against a disadvantageous allele.
● Cacti: In a desert environment, cacti vary in root length. Individuals
with longer root systems can reach deeper water sources, giving them
a significant advantage during dry seasons. These long-rooted cacti
are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their genes.
● Peppered Moth (Biston betularia):
○ Pre-Industrial England: Most peppered moths were pale and
speckled, camouflaging them against lichen-covered trees. Birds
would easily spot and eat rare dark moths.
○ Industrial Revolution: Air pollution from factories covered trees
with soot, killing the pale lichens and making tree trunks dark.
Now, the pale moths stood out and were easily caught by birds,
while the rare dark moths became well-camouflaged.
○ Outcome: The dark moths had a survival advantage in polluted
areas, leading to a rapid increase in their numbers (up to ~98% in
some industrial cities by 1900). This is a classic example of natural
selection driven by environmental change. When pollution later
decreased, the pale form began to increase again.
Scenario Adaptive trait Selection Outcome
pressure
Seahorse Camouflage Predation Better-
colour camouflaged
individuals
survive and
reproduce
Tuna High Need for speed Faster
mitochondrial for hunting and swimmers
density escaping reproduce more
Zebra Stripe pattern Biting flies Striped
individuals have
higher fitness
individuals
survive and
reproduce
Tuna High Need for speed Faster
mitochondrial for hunting and swimmers
density escaping reproduce more
Zebra Stripe pattern Biting flies Striped
individuals have
higher fitness
(survival/
reproduction)
Cactus Long root Water scarcity Cacti with long
system (drought) roots dominate
in dry
environments
Peppered moth Wing colour Bird predation Dark morph
(dark vs. pale) on different bark spreads in
backgrounds polluted areas,
pale in clean
areas
Selective Breeding (Artificial Selection)
Selective breeding, also known as artificial selection, is when humans
intentionally choose individuals with desirable traits to breed them. The goal is
to increase the frequency of those desired traits in a population over
generations.
Typical Selective Breeding Program (e.g., for dairy cows):
. Identify: The farmer observes their cows and identifies those that
produce a large volume of high-quality milk.
. Select: A bull is chosen for breeding. This bull should come from a
family line known for high milk production (e.g., his mother, sisters, or
daughters are good milk producers).
. Mate: The chosen cows are bred with the chosen bull.
. Raise: The offspring (calves) from this mating are raised to adulthood.
. Repeat: From the new generation, the top-performing daughters
(those producing the most and best milk) are selected again and bred
with the chosen bull (or another selected bull). This process is
repeated over many generations.
● Combining Traits: If a farmer wants cows with both high milk yield
●
and a docile (calm) temperament, they would select for both traits in
each generation. Over time, both characteristics would become
common in the herd.
● Important Note: Traits that are beneficial for humans in agriculture
(like extremely high milk production or large size) may actually reduce
an organism's ability to survive in the wild if it were left to fend for
itself.
Antibiotics & Resistance
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are medicinal drugs specifically designed to kill or inhibit (stop the
growth of) bacteria in the body, without harming human cells.
● They are crucial for treating bacterial infections that could otherwise
be very serious or fatal.
● Important: Antibiotics only work against bacteria. They are ineffective
against viruses, so they should not be used to treat viral infections like
the common cold.
● Penicillin: A well-known antibiotic that works by interfering with the
synthesis (formation) of bacterial cell walls. This causes the bacteria
to burst and die.
Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance is the ability of bacteria to survive and reproduce even
when an antibiotic that would normally kill them is present. This is a serious
global health concern.
● How Resistance Arises (via Natural Selection):
. Large Bacterial Population: In a large population of bacteria,
there might be a rare, random mutant individual that, by chance,
possesses a resistance allele (a genetic variation) that makes it
unaffected by a particular antibiotic.
. Antibiotic Administered: When an antibiotic is used to treat an
infection, it acts as a strong selective pressure. All the
susceptible (non-resistant) bacteria are killed.
. Resistant Cells Proliferate: Only the rare resistant bacteria
survive. With the competition removed, these resistant bacteria
can now reproduce rapidly and form a large population, all of
which carry the resistance allele. The population quickly becomes
largely resistant to that antibiotic.
● MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus):
○ MRSA is a famous example of a bacterium that has become
resistant to multiple antibiotics.
○ Historically, Staphylococcus aureus infections were easily treated
with common antibiotics like penicillin and methicillin.
○ However, due to widespread antibiotic use, MRSA strains have
evolved that are now multi-drug resistant, meaning very few
antibiotics remain effective against them.
○ The more we use antibiotics, the stronger the selective
pressure for resistant strains. This accelerates the evolution and
spread of resistant bacteria.
○ Prudent Use: To combat antibiotic resistance, it's very important
to:
◆ Avoid using antibiotics for viral infections.
◆ Always complete the full course of prescribed antibiotics,
even if you start feeling better. Stopping early can leave some
resistant bacteria alive to multiply.
