The Self From Various These provide sociologists

with theoretical paradigms for explaining

Perspectives: The Sociological
how society influences people and vice
Perspective versa.
Sociology or Psychology: What is the Symbolic Interactionism
difference?
The distinction between sociology and Short Story
psychology becomes crucial when exploring
their shared interests in human behavior. "Jeremy and Kim ended their relationship
Although both disciplines delve into this last year. When Jeremy received an email
realm, psychologists concentrate on the from Kim to go out on a date, he agreed,
influence of the mind on behavior, examining and they went to a bar. Then, Kim started
mental development and cognitive talking about their happier days. A confused
processes. On the other hand, sociologists Jeremy offered to take her home. The night
emphasize the impact of society on behavior, did not end well."
analyzing how various societal factors shape
an individual's connection to their world. The
What do you think went wrong?
complexities of their shared interests
underscore the essential nature of Context is important: Jeremy and Kim
understanding the differences between these had long been former partners before Kim
two fields. asked Jeremy out on a date. Then, during
their time together, she began to talk "about
Psychologists tend to look inward (e.g.,
their happier days," which left Jeremy
mental health and emotional processes). In
confused. This is a clear example of how
contrast, sociologists tend to
humans can communicate between and
look outward (e.g., social institutions, cultural
beyond superficial words and actions. In
norms, and interactions with others) to
short, interaction can be symbolic.
understand human behavior. In the realm
of research, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) Symbolic interactionism, linked to
was the pioneer in making a clear distinction George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) and Max
when he connected variations in suicide Weber (1864-1920) in social theory, views
rates among individuals to social factors society as a creation shaped by shared
(specifically citing religious differences) symbols, particularly language. This
instead of psychological reasons (e.g., their perspective asserts that the social world
mental well-being; Durkheim 1897). For emerges from the meanings individuals
instance, a sociologist doing research on how attribute to events and interactions, with
a couple reaches the point of their first kiss symbols transmitted across generations
on a date might center their research around through language.
cultural norms for dating, the social trends
and patterns of sexual activity over time, or At the core of symbolic interactionism
how different this process is for seniors lies a pivotal concept—the Self. This concept
compared to teens. On the other hand, a enables individuals to gauge the
psychologist would likely be more interested consequences of their actions, highlighting
in the person's earliest sexual awareness or the role of personal identity and self-
their mental processing of sexual desire. awareness in understanding and navigating
social interactions.
Three Major Sociological Perspectives:
Symbolic interactionism focuses on
 Symbolic interactionism how we use symbols in our interactions to
convey deeper meaning.
 Structural functionalism
As humans and members of society,
 Conflict theory
our comprehension evolves through our
engagement with symbols, including the Social structures, such as our families,
letters forming words in our language. Take the community, and religious organizations,
the word "cat," for instance; its meaning isn't shape our lives. Rituals, such as a handshake
inherent but is derived from our social or elaborate religious ceremonies, give
interactions with others and real cats. The structure to our everyday lives. Each social
shared understanding of the term "cat" is system has a social function or consequence
reinforced through these interactions. While for the operation of society as a whole. For
"cat" may appear to be a straightforward example, education has essential roles in
symbol, other words and symbols in our society, such as socialization, learning, and
culture lack simplicity. social placement.
This example highlights the subjective
nature of symbolic interactionism. Consider History and Issues with Structural
the word "wife," which can carry different Functionalism
meanings for different individuals. If a First, let us look at the history of
husband and wife hold divergent structural functionalism. During the 19th
interpretations of this term, it can lead to century, the world was becoming a much
conflict in their marriage. Symbolic smaller space. Trains and steamships had
interactionism posits that clear linked the world in a way no one had thought
communication occurs in a society when possible. While many Europeans were
there is a consensus on the meaning of a starting to think of themselves as superior
symbol (e.g., "cat"). Conversely, due to their “advanced” culture, a French
communication becomes problematic in the philosopher named Emile Durkheim noticed
absence of consensus. this and began to believe that society was
made of building blocks focused on a
Structural Functionalism
common goal. If people stopped agreeing on
Take a step back and think of your
those shared goals, then society would
hometown’s government. Unless you live in a
disintegrate. However, as long as most
small town, the local doctor is not also a local
people agreed, society would be fine.
policeman. Many municipal services make up
a small town. Each different part of the Unfortunately, structural
government contributes something different. functionalism poses some issues. It does not
After all, you would not want the local animal account for the actual society because
control officer to be too busy fighting fires in society’s parts are assumed to be
keeping stray dogs out of your garbage. homogenous, and all want the same thing.
Several decades ago, several sociologists Some have observed that society is a venue
thought that all of society interacts like this, for a zero-sum game in which people
where each part of society had a specific compete to gain something. In this “game,”
task. They called this framework structural there are winners and losers. A gain for a
functionalism. specific sector would be a loss for another.
For instance, if you increase funding for the
Structural functionalism or
police department, then that money must
functionalism is a framework that sees
come from somewhere and taken from other
society as a complex system. The parts of
sectors, like the educational fund. In
the society work together to promote
layman’s terms, structural functionalism
solidarity and stability. Two theorists, namely
assumes that all of society’s groups are
Herbert Spencer and Robert Merton, were
always equal, which is not always the case.
the major contributors to this perspective.
Watching the news or any political debate
Essential concepts in functionalism include
will show that many groups of society are
social structure, social functions, manifest
anything but equal.
functions, and latent functions. Let us
examine this perspective in-depth and take a Structural Functionalism Model
look at a few examples.
 phenomena, encompassing wars,
revolutions, poverty, discrimination, and
domestic violence. It attributes pivotal
historical developments, such as the rise of
democracy and civil rights, to capitalist
endeavors aiming to control the masses
rather than a pursuit of social order. The core
principles of conflict theory revolve around
social inequality, resource division, and the
A sociologist with the structural- inherent conflicts among distinct
functionalist perspective will attempt to socioeconomic classes.
identify society's structures and how they
The foundational tenets of conflict
function. The stress of the relationship
theory offer insights into various societal
among the individuals, groups, and
conflicts throughout history. Influential
institutions follows well-defined social
theorists like Marx asserted that societal
organization patterns, thereby emphasizing
conflict acts as the driving force behind
stability, harmony, and evolution.
societal change and development. Marx's
iteration of conflict theory specifically
focuses on the clash between two primary
classes. Each class comprises individuals
united by common interests and a specific
level of property ownership. Marx delineated
the bourgeoisie, a faction representing those
Conflict Theory who possess the majority of wealth and
resources in society. In contrast,
the proletariat constitutes the working-class
or economically disadvantaged segment of
the population.

Conflict Theory Assumptions:

 Competition
Conflict theory, which was first put
forward by Karl Marx, "is a theory stating  Revolution
that society is in a perpetual state of conflict
 Structural inequality
because of competition for limited resources.
Conflict theory holds that domination and  War
power, rather than consensus and
conformity, maintain social "order." Competition. Conflict theorists
"According to conflict theory, people with assert that competition is a constant and
wealth and power try to hold on to this occasionally an overwhelming factor in
"order" by any means possible by nearly every human relationship and
suppressing those without wealth and power, interaction. Competition arises from the
i.e., the poor and powerless. One of the basic scarcity of resources, encompassing material
premises of conflict theory is that entities -- assets such as money, property, and
individuals and groups -- within society will commodities. Beyond the tangible,
maximize their benefits or gain as much as individuals and groups in a society also vie
possible." for intangible resources like leisure time,
dominance, social status, and sexual
Conflict theory has been used as a partners. Conflict theorists posit that
basis to explain a vast array of social competition is the prevailing norm,
supplanting cooperation. For example, significantly swayed by the social forces that
graduates often contend for a limited surround us. In short, no man is an island,
number of job opportunities. and the world around us can influence the
self as much as how the individual can.
Revolution. Considering conflict
theorists’ assumption that conflict occurs
between social classes, one outcome of this Sociological Theories of Self-
tenant-based revolutionary event. Change in Development
the power dynamics among groups does not One of the pioneers to developing
happen because of gradual adaptation but as sociological perspectives of understanding
a sign of conflict. the self was Charles Cooley (1864–1929). He
asserted that people's self-understanding is
This manner of transformation in
constructed partly by their perception of how
power dynamics frequently manifests as
others view them in a process known as "the
sudden and sweeping, rather than gradual
looking-glass self" (Cooley 1902).
and evolutionary. For instance, a shift in a
nation's presidential administration is Later, George Herbert Mead (1863–
perceived as a substantial and far-reaching 1931) studied the self or a person’s distinct
overhaul. identity developed through social interaction.
To engage in this process of “self,” an
Structural Inequality. In this regard,
individual has to be able to view him or
important assumption of conflict theory is
herself through the eyes of others, which is
that human relationships, along with social
not an ability that is innate in us from birth
structures, all experience inequalities of
(Mead 1934). Through socialization, we learn
power. In this way, several individuals and
to look at the world from someone else's
groups inherently develop more power and
perspective, thereby allowing us to be self-
rewards than others. These individuals and
aware as we look at ourselves from the
groups that benefit from a particular
perspective of "others."
structure of society tend to try and maintain
those structures in order to retain and
enhance their power. In Marx's view, people The Looking-Glass Self: Our Sense of
who have more capital have more resources Self is Influenced and Affected by How
to keep growing that capital, while those who Others Views Us
do not have it in the first place tend to stay The concept of the looking-glass self
impoverished. states that a portion of how we see ourselves
is taken from our perception of how others
War. Conflict theorists tend to see
also see us (Cooley, 1902).
war either as a unifier or cleanser of
societies. In conflict theory, war results from We might feel that we have a great
a cumulative and growing conflict between sense of humor because others have told us
entities and between entire societies. In war, we are funny, and that people often laugh
a society may become unified somehow, but with apparent sincerity at our jokes. Our self-
the conflict remains between multiple concepts are often similar to the views that
societies. Meanwhile, war may also end a others have of us, and similar self-concepts
society. can be observed from people within a family
and culture. Perkins, Wiley, and Deaux
(2014) found that in the United States, how
Why do we need a sociological
members of various ethnic minority groups
perspective?
believed other members of that same culture
Humans have complex and well-
perceived them is significantly correlated
developed self-concepts, and they generally
with their self-esteem scores. By contrast,
attempt to view themselves positively. These
the perceived appraisal of European
cognitive and affective aspects of ourselves
do not occur in a vacuum. They are
Americans toward themselves was only
weakly related to their self-esteem.

Social Comparison Theory

Social comparison theory posits that
people value their own personal and social
worth by assessing how they compare to
others. Leon Festinger introduced the theory
in 1954, outlining the processes individuals
employ to assess their actions,
achievements, and opinions in comparison to
those of others. There are two kinds of social
comparison:
o Upward social comparison - This
occurs when we measure
ourselves against those we
perceive as superior to us.
Upward comparisons typically
focus on the aspiration to
enhance one’s existing status or
level of competence.
o Downward social comparison –
Conversely, this is when we
measure ourselves against
people we perceive
as inferior to us. Often, this
revolves around seeking
validation for one’s abilities or
traits.