💀 MAP PROJECTIONS

MAP
PROJECTIONS
Introduction

Map projection is a two-step process where:

1. The Earth is reduced to a generating globe of a desired size.
2. The generating globe is then projected onto a plane.

Types of Scale
● Principal Scale: The scale at which the generating globe is conceptualized. It is correct only at
points of tangency or lines of contact with the projection surface.
● Real Scale: The actual scale on the map, which varies due to distortions.
● Scale Factor: The ratio of the principal scale to the real scale at any point.

Types of Scale Factors

● Tangential Scale Factor (TSF): Measures distortion along parallels

● Radial Scale Factor (RSF): Measures distortion along meridians

In cartography, a Tissot's indicatrix (Tissot's ellipse, Tissot ellipse, ellipse of distortion) is a mathematical
tactic presented by French mathematician Nicolas Auguste Tissot in order to characterize local
distortions due to map projection. It is the geometry that results from projecting a circle of minuscule
radius from a curved geometric model, such as a globe, onto a map.
A single indicatrix describes the distortion at a single point. Because distortion varies across a map,
generally Tissot's indicatrices are placed across a map to illustrate the spatial change in distortion. A
common scheme places them at each intersection of displayed meridians and parallels.
 The Mercator projection with Tissot's indicatrices
The Behrmann projection with Tissot's indicatrices

Developable & Non-

Developable Surfaces

In geometry and cartography, surfaces are

classified as developable or undevelopable
based on their ability to be unfolded or unrolled
into a flat plane without stretching, tearing, or
distorting.

1. Developable surface is a three-dimensional

shape that can be flattened onto a plane without distortion. This means that when the surface is
"unwrapped" or "unfolded," it retains its original proportions without any stretching or compressing.
Examples of Developable Surfaces include:

● Cylinder: A cylinder can be cut along a vertical line and unrolled into a rectangle.
● Cone: A cone can be cut along one of its straight-line generators and unfolded into a sector of a
circle.
● Plane: A flat plane is inherently developable, as it is already in a two-dimensional state.

These surfaces are important in cartography because if the Earth had a cylindrical or conical shape, it
could be mapped without distortions.

2. Undevelopable surface is a three-dimensional shape that cannot be flattened without distortion.

These surfaces have intrinsic curvature, meaning that any attempt to unfold them onto a plane will
cause stretching, tearing, or deformation. Examples of Undevelopable Surfaces include:

● Sphere: The Earth's surface is approximately spherical. When trying to project a sphere onto a
flat surface, distortions in shape, area, or distance are inevitable.
● Ellipsoid: A slightly flattened version of a sphere, commonly used in geodesy to approximate
the Earth's shape.
● Torus (Doughnut Shape): Cannot be flattened onto a plane without stretching or compressing
some regions.

Since the Earth's surface is an undevelopable geometry, cartographers must use map projections to
approximate it on a flat surface. These projections introduce different types of distortions, such as area,
shape, distance, or direction.
 The constant of a cone (n) is the ratio between:
1. The angle at the vertex (apex) of the cone when it is
developed into a plane (α).
2. The angle at the pole of the generating globe (360°).

Zero Distortions
● The line of tangency is the location where a developable
surface (like a cylinder, cone, or plane) touches the globe without intersecting it, resulting in no
distortion at that line. Line of tangency is a general term for any touching point or line in all types
of projections.

● A standard parallel is a latitude line where a map projection surface (such as a cone or cylinder)
touches or intersects the Earth's surface, resulting in no distortion along that line —- called Line of
Zero Distortion.

Systems of Map Projection

Map projections are systems used to represent the Earth's three-dimensional surface on a two-
dimensional plane. While a map projection cannot perfectly preserve all aspects of the Earth's geometry,
different projection systems attempt to minimize distortions in specific properties such as area, shape,
bearing, or distance. Map projections can be classified into two broad categories:

Perspective (Geometrical) Projections

Perspective projections are those that are derived through a geometrical method of projecting the
Earth's surface onto a plane using a light source. These projections are often conceptualized as
shadows cast from the Earth onto a projection surface. The properties of the projection change
depending on:
● The position of the light source (e.g., at the center, infinity, or outside the Earth)
● The placement of the projection surface (plane, cone, or cylinder)

i. Zenithal (Azimuthal / Planar) Projections

Zenithal projections are created when a flat plane touches the globe at a single point, and the Earth's
features are projected onto the plane. These projections maintain true bearings (azimuths), making
them useful for navigation. Depending on where the projection plane touches the globe, Zenithal
projections can be classified into three cases:

1. Polar Case (Normal Zenithal Projection): The projection plane touches the Earth at the North
or South Pole.
2. Equatorial Case: The projection plane touches the Earth along the equator.
3. Oblique Case: The projection plane touches a point between the equator and the poles.
 Zenithal projections are widely used for polar region maps and navigation charts because they
preserve direction.

ii. Conical Projections

Conical projections are created by placing a sheet of paper in the form of a cone over the globe so
that it touches the Earth's surface along a particular parallel of latitude. These projections can be:

● Simple Conical Projection: The cone touches the globe along one parallel (standard parallel).
● Modified Conical Projections: The cone may intersect the globe at two standard parallels to
reduce distortion.

Unlike Zenithal projections, Equatorial (Normal) and Oblique cases are difficult to construct in
conical projections. Conical projections are widely used for mid-latitude regions like Europe and
North America.

iii. Cylindrical Projections

Cylindrical projections involve wrapping a cylinder around the globe, touching it along a line
(usually the equator). The Earth’s surface is then projected onto the cylinder. These projections can
be both perspective and non-perspective. Like Zenithal projections, cylindrical projections also have:
1. Equatorial Case (Normal — Most Common): Cylinder touches the globe at the equator.
2. Polar (Traverse) Case: Cylinder touches the globe at a meridian.
 3. Oblique Case: Cylinder is tilted to touch the Earth at an angle between the poles and the equator.

The cylindrical projections are widely used because they preserve area and shape near the equator.
The Mercator projection, a famous cylindrical projection, is commonly used for navigation maps due
to its property of preserving true directions. Cylindrical projections can be classified based on how the
cylinder interacts with the globe:

1. Tangential Method (Simple Cylindrical Projection): In this method, the cylinder touches the globe
along a single great circle, usually the equator (or a selected standard parallel in oblique cases). There
is no distortion at the line of tangency, but distortion increases away from it, especially near the poles.
Example: Mercator’s Projection, where the equator is the line of tangency.

2. Secant Cylindrical Projection: The cylinder

cuts through the globe, touching it along two
standard parallels instead of one. This reduces
distortion between these parallels compared
to the tangential method, making the map
more accurate in the central regions.
Example: Lambert's Cylindrical Equal-Area
Projection, where the two standard parallels
experience minimal distortion.

Comparison:
● Tangential projections exaggerate features
away from the equator or standard parallel.

● Secant projections distribute distortion

more evenly, making them preferable for
some thematic and large-area maps.
 WHAT DO THEY PRESERVE?

Projection Shape Area Distance Direction

Scale
Type (Conformality) (Equivalence) (Equidistance) (Azimuthality)

Sometimes Sometimes Preserved along YES

Zenithal
(e.g., (e.g., equal- specific lines or (from the VARIES
(Azimuthal)
stereographic) area) from the center central point)

DISTORTION
Sometimes Sometimes DISTORTION
INCREASES
(e.g., Lambert (e.g., Albers INCREASES FROM
Conical FROM NO
Conformal Equal-Area STANDARD
STANDARD
Conic) Conic) PARALLEL
PARALLEL
Sometimes
Sometimes
(e.g., Equal DISTORTION DISTOTION
(e.g., Conformal YES
Cylindrical Area Types INCREASES INCREASES
Types like (in Mercator)
like Gall- FROM EQUATOR TOWARDS POLE
Mercator)
Peters)
Cylindrical vs. Pseudocylindrical Projections:

● In cylindrical projections, the meridians are straight, parallel, and equally spaced. The parallels are
straight, parallel, and perpendicular to the meridians. The projection outline is rectangular.
●

● Pseudocylindrical projections are like cylindrical projections in that their parallels are straight
parallel lines. The difference is that the meridians are curved rather than straight. (They are still
evenly spaced in most cases.) The projection outlines are usually ovals that have been either
pinched together or flattened out at the poles.
Non-Perspective (Mathematical) Projections

Unlike perspective projections, non-perspective projections are derived using mathematical

calculations rather than the direct projection of Earth's surface using a light source. These projections
allow for better control over distortions.

● Non-perspective projections can be based on conical, cylindrical, or azimuthal systems.

● They are more accurate than perspective projections because they can be adjusted to balance
distortions.

Conventionally Used Projections

Conventional projections are called so because they do not strictly follow any geometric projection
method (like cylindrical, conical, or azimuthal) but are instead artificially constructed to balance
distortions and improve the representation of the Earth's surface. These projections are often designed
for specific purposes, such as creating aesthetically pleasing world maps, minimizing distortions in
certain areas, or emphasizing specific regions.

They are termed "conventional" because they have been widely adopted by convention in
cartography and are commonly used in atlases, thematic maps, and educational materials. Examples
include the Mollweide Projection, Goode’s Homolosine Projection, and the Robinson Projection.

Two widely used examples of conventional projections are:

1. Oblique Mollweide Projection: The Mollweide Projection is a pseudo-cylindrical map

projection that represents the entire world within an ellipse, balancing shape distortion to
maintain accurate area proportions (homolographic), in which the equator is represented as a
straight horizontal line perpendicular to a central meridian that is one-half the equator's length.
The Oblique Mollweide Projection is aphylactic / compromise projection.

2. Oblique Mercator Projection: A modified Mercator projection that allows for mapping areas along
an oblique axis rather than strictly north-south or east-west. The oblique version is sometimes used
in national mapping systems.

Aphylactic Projections

Aphylactic Projection (also known as arbitrary, modified, or compromise projection) is a type of map
projection that does not strictly preserve area (equal-area projections), shape (conformal
projections), or distances (equidistant projections) but instead balances distortions to create a
visually pleasing representation of the Earth's surface.

These projections are specifically designed to provide aesthetic and practical advantages, making
them commonly used in world maps where extreme distortions in certain regions need to be
minimized.
Positive vs. Negative Projections

● Positive Deformation: When a map projection expands or stretches features compared to their
real-world size. This often happens in conformal projections, where shapes are preserved but areas
are distorted (e.g., Mercator projection making Greenland appear much larger than it is).

● Negative Deformation: When a map projection compresses or shrinks features compared to their
real-world size. This is common in equal-area projections, where areas are preserved, but shapes
get distorted (e.g., Mollweide projection squashing landmasses near the poles).

● Positive deformation = Enlargement (Stretching/Expansion)

● Negative deformation = Shrinking (Compression/Squashing)
 Loxodromic
Orthodromic Representation
Projection Name Representation
(Great Circle Route)
(Rhumb Line)

Zenithal Gnomonic Projection STRAIGHT

CURVED
(Azimuthal) (thus used for navigation)`

CIRCLES
Zenithal Stereographic Projection CURVED
(except equator and meridians)

CURVED
Simple Conic Projection (Two
(except for meridians and standard CURVED
Standard Parallels)
parallels)

CURVED
Bonne’s Projection COMPLEX & CURVED
(except along the central meridian)

CURVED
Cylindrical Equal-Area Projection STRAIGHT BUT DISTORTED
(except meridians)

STRAIGHT
Mercator’s Projection CURVED & DISTORTED
(thus used for navigation)`

PROJECTIONS AND THEIR CREDENTIALS

 Projections Properties Advantages Disadvantages

- Perspective Zenithal Projection. ❌Severe distortions

Zenithal - All parallels are concentric circles. ✅Useful for Great away from the map
Gnomonic - All great circles appear as straight Circle Navigation. center.
Projection lines — Equator cannot be ✅True bearing from ❌Only small portions of
(Azimuthal) represented the map center. the Earth can be
- Only small areas can be shown. represented.
✅Preserves angles ❌Severe area distortion
Zenithal - Perspective Zenithal Projection.
and shapes locally. near the equator.
Stereographic - Conformal projection.
✅Useful in astronomy ❌Cannot represent the
Projection - Parallels are concentric circles.
and navigation. whole globe.
✅Reduces distortions ❌Not equal-area or
Simple Conic - Non Perspective Projection
over wide areas. conformal.
Projection - Two standard parallels distribute
✅Better than the ❌Distortion increases
(Two Standard distortion.
Simple Conic outside the standard
Parallels) - Meridians are straight lines.
Projection. parallels.
✅Useful for mid- ❌Not conformal.
- Modified Conic Projection.
Bonne’s latitude regions. ❌Meridians curve away
- Equal-area projection.
Projection ✅Preserves area from the central
- Parallels are curved lines.
accurately. meridian.

- Equal-area (Homolographic)
Cylindrical ✅Used for climatic ❌Severe shape
projection.
Equal-Area and population maps. distortion near poles.
- Meridians and parallels are straight
Projection ✅Easy to construct. ❌Not conformal.
lines.

✅Excellent for ❌Extreme area

- Orthomorphic projection.
Mercator’s navigation. distortion near poles.
- Parallels and meridians intersect
Projection ✅Rhumb lines are ❌Poles cannot be
at right angles.
straight. shown.
💀 BASIC CARTOGRAPHY
BASIC
CARTOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
A map is a graphical and true representation of various information related to the Earth's surface on a
flat surface in a reduced form. A map is a two-dimensional scale model of the Earth's surface used for
spatial representation and analysis. Functions include:

○ Communication tool for geographical information.

○ Scientific aid for hypothesis development.
○ Visual tool for data interpretation.

Key Aspects of a Map

1. Location – Specifies where things are on Earth.

2. Attributes – Represents features at locations.
3. Spatial Relationships – Shows connections between different features.

Evolution of Maps

● Traditional maps were drawn manually.

● Modern cartography relies on GIS (Geographic Information Systems), remote sensing, and digital
visualization.

ELEMENTS OF A MAP

1. Title

The title is the first and most important element. It describes the purpose or subject of the map.
Example: “Population Density of India (2024)”.

2. Scale

The scale represents the ratio between map distance and real-world distance. Types of scale
representation:

● Statement Scale: "1 cm to 50 km"

● Representative Fraction (RF): 1:50,000
● Graphical Scale (Bar Scale): A visual scale with distances marked.

Purpose: Helps measure distances accurately on the map.

A large-scale map covers a small area with more detail (e.g., 1:10,000 for a city).
A small-scale map covers a large area with less detail (e.g., 1:1,000,000 for a continent).

3. Compass / North Arrow

Indicates the orientation of the map. The most common north direction is True North. Types of
north:

● True North (Geographic North)

 ● Magnetic North (Compass North)
● Grid North (used in coordinate systems)

Purpose: Helps users understand directions on the map.

4. Legend / Key

A legend explains the symbols, colors, and patterns used on the map. Example:

🟢 = Forest

🟢 = Capital City

🟢 = River

Purpose: Allows users to decode map information correctly.

5. Symbols
Cartographic symbols represent various features. Types of symbols:
● Point Symbols – Cities, wells, temples, airports.
● Line Symbols – Roads, railways, rivers, boundaries.
● Area Symbols – Forests, deserts, water bodies.

Purpose: Simplifies complex data into visual representations.

6. Labels & Annotations

Labels provide names of locations (e.g., city names, river names). Annotations add extra details
(e.g., "Highest Peak", "Dense Forest"). Example:

● Himalayas (labeled over the mountain range).

● Ganga River (labeled along the river’s path).

Purpose: Helps in quick identification of features.

7. Grid System (Latitude & Longitude)

Graticule/grid lines are drawn to provide a geographical reference. Types of Grid Systems:

● Latitude & Longitude – Used in global maps.

● UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) – Used for military/navigation.
● Indian Grid System – Used in topographic maps.
 Purpose: Helps determine the exact location of any point on the Earth.

8. Insets / Locator Map

A zoomed-in or zoomed-out section of the main map. Example: A city map inset inside a state
map.

Locator Maps: A small global/regional map showing where the main map is located. Example: A
map of West Bengal inside a small India map.

Purpose: Provides context for the main map.

9. Borders & Neatlines

A frame that encloses the map.

Purpose:

● Keeps the map organized.

● Defines the extent of the map area.

10. Source & Date

● Source: Mentions data providers (e.g., Survey of India, NASA, Google Maps).
● Date: Indicates when the map was created or last updated.
● Purpose: Ensures credibility and shows if the map is up-to-date.

PRINCIPLES OF CARTOGRAPHY
The art and science of map-making follows certain principles:

1. Scale & Accuracy – Maps are created on a fixed scale, ensuring proportionate distances.
2. Selective Representation – Only relevant and important features are included.
3. Symbolization – Standard symbols and colors represent nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio data.
4. Generalization – Complex data is simplified while retaining meaningful details.
5. Labeling & Annotations – Titles, legends, and labels enhance clarity.
6. Grid Systems – Most maps align with parallels and meridians for precise location referencing.

TYPES OF MAPS
A. Classification Based on Scale

Type Scale Usage

 Wall Maps 1:5M - 1:100M Large displays (e.g., classrooms)

Atlas Maps 1:5M - 1:10M General reference, world maps

Medium-Scale Maps 1:50M - 1:100M Regional mapping

Topographical Maps 1:250,000 Terrain and elevation studies

Cadastral Maps 1:100,000 Property, land use, municipal maps

Large-Scale Plans 1:100 - 1:1,000,000 Detailed urban and infrastructure planning

B. Classification Based on Purpose

1. General Maps – Depict multiple surface features (e.g., roads, rivers, cities).
2. Thematic Maps – Focus on a single theme (e.g., climate, population density).

THEMATIC MAPPING TECHNIQUES

A. Choropleth Maps represent density, intensity, or proportions using shading or color gradients.
Example: Population density maps.

B. Isopleth Maps (Contour Maps) use lines of equal value (isolines) to represent continuous data such
as:
a. Elevation (Topographic Maps)
b. Temperature (Isotherm Maps)
c. Rainfall (Isohyet Maps)
d. Air Pressure (Isobar Maps)

C. Flowline Maps show movement of goods, people, or services. Thickness of lines represents volume
(e.g., migration, trade routes).

D. Dot Maps incorporate both Qualitative Dot Maps (that represent presence/location of features) as
well as Quantitative Dot Maps (where dots represent numerical values [e.g., population distribution]).

E. Cartograms distort areas based on data values instead of actual land area. Example: A population
cartogram may resize countries based on population rather than landmass.

F. Diagrammatic Maps overlay graphs, charts, and diagrams on maps to visualize statistical data.

G. Landform Maps are three-dimensional representations of the Earth's surface, often computer-
generated.
H. Animated Maps are digital time-series maps showing changes over time. Example: Urban
expansion, deforestation trends.

CARTOGRAPHIC GENERALIZATION TECHNIQUES

Due to space constraints, maps simplify data using:

1. Simplification – Selecting only essential details.

2. Smoothing – Removing minor irregularities in lines.
3. Aggregation – Grouping similar point features.
4. Amalgamation – Combining small features into larger ones.
5. Merging – Joining similar linear features (e.g., roads).
6. Collapse – Representing complex features as points.
7. Refinement – Eliminating minor details.
8. Typification – Using representative symbols instead of individual features.
9. Exaggeration – Enlarging features for clarity.
10. Displacement – Moving features slightly to avoid overlap.
11. Classification – Grouping data into meaningful categories.

PRINCIPLES OF MAP SYMBOLIZATION

● Point Symbols – Cities, mountains, landmarks.
● Line Symbols – Rivers, roads, boundaries.
● Area Symbols – Forests, deserts, administrative divisions.
● Volume Symbols – Three-dimensional representation (e.g., relief maps).

Use of Colors & Patterns

● Hues (Color Shades) – Differentiate qualitative data.

● Value (Darkness/Lightness) – Represent intensity.
● Pattern/Texture – Used when color is unavailable.
● Size Variation – Indicates quantity differences.

MODERN DIGITAL MAPPING

● GIS (Geographic Information Systems) – Software-based spatial analysis.
● Remote Sensing – Satellite imagery for real-time mapping.
● Computer-Aided Mapping Tools:
○ SYMAP, LINMAP, COLMAP – Early digital mapping software.
○ ArcGIS, MapInfo, QGIS – Advanced modern GIS software.
○ ERDAS, Geomatica – Image processing tools for satellite data.

Advantages of Digital Cartography

1. High precision & real-time updates.

2. Dynamic visualization (interactive maps, 3D modeling).
3. Automated data processing for thematic mapping.
💀 SCALES
SCALES
INTRODUCTION
A map is a graphic representation of the Earth's surface that provides spatial information. It is a graphical
and true representation of various information related to the Earth's surface on a flat surface in a reduced
form. Maps help analyze topological and metric properties, including:

○ Distance
○ Direction
○ Connectivity
○ Proximity

The fundamental properties conveyed by a map are locations and attributes at locations.

Concept of Scale
A map scale represents the relationship between the distance on the map and the corresponding real-
world distance. It is the measure used for the proportional and true representation of the Earth's surface
on a map in a reduced form. Examples: If AB = 10,000 km on the Earth and XY = 5 cm on the map, the
scale is:

■ 1 cm to 2000 km
■ 1 inch to 3175 miles
■ 1 : 200,000,000 (representative fraction)

Map Scales help analyze topological and metric properties, including:

○ Distance
○ Area
○ Angles
○ Direction

TYPES OF MAP SCALES

Three Basic Forms
1. Statement Scale (Verbal Scale) is expressed in words, e.g., "1 cm to 25 km" or "1 inch to 50 miles".
Limitation: If a map is reduced or enlarged, the scale must be recalculated.

2. Numeric Ratio Scale (Representative Fraction - RF) is expressed as a ratio, e.g., 1:100,000. It is
dimensionless (both map and ground distances are in the same unit). Example:
■ 1:100,000 can be written as:
■ 1 cm to 100,000 cm (CGS)
■ 1 inch to 100,000 inches (FPS)

○ Advantage: Can be used universally regardless of measurement system.

3. Graphical. Line or Linear Scale (Bar Scale) is a visual representation using a scale bar. Example: A
10 km scale bar with primary and secondary divisions.
CONSTRUCTION & TYPES OF SCALES

A. Scale is used for linear measurements. It is constructed by:

i. Fixing primary and secondary divisions.
ii. Drawing a straight horizontal line divided into equal parts.
iii. Labelling each division with real-world distances.

B. Comparative Scale represents two different units (e.g., kilometers and miles). Constructed by:
i. Drawing two identical plain scales (one for each unit).
ii. Aligning them so their zero points coincide.

C. Diagonal Scale is a graphical scale used for precise measurement of small units. It is designed to
divide one primary division into 1/100th parts using tertiary divisions, which are marked along the
diagonals of the secondary divisions. It has three types of divisions:

i. Primary Divisions: Represent the main units (e.g., centimeters, inches).

ii. Secondary Divisions: Each primary division is further divided into ten equal parts.
iii. Tertiary Divisions: The secondary divisions are divided into 1/100th parts using
diagonal lines.

It is constructed by:
i. A rectangle is drawn with primary, secondary, and tertiary divisions.
ii. Diagonals are drawn from primary to tertiary points.

Composite DIagonal Scale: When different Representative Fractions (R.F.) are used, the scale
can measure multiple units, making it a composite diagonal scale.

D. Vernier Scale Vernier is a device invented by French cartographer Pierre Vernier to measure the
fractions between small divisions of a length or angle-measuring instrument. It is used for high-
precision instruments like theodolites, barometers, sextants, Abney’s Level, Brunton Compass,
Slide Calipers, Fortin's Barometer etc. It allows measuring fractional parts of the smallest divisions.
Types:
i. Direct (Positive) Vernier – Vernier divisions are shorter than the main scale.
ii. Retrograde (Negative) Vernier – Vernier divisions are longer than the main scale.

SPECIAL TYPES OF SCALES

A. Time Scale represents time and distance together. Example: A marching battalion advancing at 5
km/hr can be represented on a map with a distance-time scale.
B. Pace Scale is used by the military to measure distances in terms of paces (one pace = 75 cm).
Example: A scale showing meters and paces to estimate ground distances.
C. Revolution Scale measures distance using the number of revolutions of a wheel. It is used for
bicycle/military cart distance estimations.

Ground Distance = Circumference of Wheel × No. of Revolutions

MAP ENLARGEMENT & REDUCTION

Maps often need to be enlarged or reduced, affecting their scale.

Rules for Scale Change

1. Linear Features: New length = Original length × Magnitude of enlargement/reduction.

2. Areal Features: New area = Original area × (Magnitude of enlargement/reduction)².

Examples

Example 1: Linear Measurement

○ A road is 25 cm long on a 1:50,000 map.

○ Its real-world length = 25 × 0.5 km = 12.5 km.
○ If reduced to 1:100,000, new length = 12.5 cm.
○ If enlarged to 1:10,000, new length = 125 cm.

Example 2: Area Measurement

○ A drainage basin measures 200 sq. cm on a 1:50,000 map.

○ Real-world area = 200 × 0.25 = 50 sq. km.
○ If reduced to 1:100,000, new area = 50 sq. cm.
○ If enlarged to 1:10,000, new area = 5,000 sq. cm.

FINDING DIRECTION ON A MAP

Using a North Arrow or Meridians

Maps show True North using:

○ North Arrow
○ Meridians

Magnetic Declination: True Bearing = Magnetic Bearing ± Magnetic Declination.

Using a Protractor

Steps include:

○ Draw a line between two points A and B.

 ○ Draw a North line at A.
○ Measure the angle between the North line and AB.

MEASURING DISTANCE ON A MAP

Straight-Line Distance

Steps include:

● Use a ruler to measure the map distance.

● Convert it using the scale factor.

Curved-Line Distance

Methods include:

1. Divider Method – Step off the curved line using dividers.

2. Thread Method – Lay a thread along the line, then measure.
3. Opisometer (Rotameter) – A rolling wheel measures curved distances.

MEASURING AREA ON A MAP

Graphical Methods

1. Square Grid Method places a millimeter grid over the map. It counts full squares, half squares, and
fractional squares. It converts to a real-world area.

2. Strip Method:
○ Draw parallel strips over the area.
○ Compute area using strip lengths.

3. Geometric Method divides the area into triangles. The application of the following formulas is
required:

■ Area = ½ × Base × Height

■ Heron’s Formula:
Area = Square root of√s(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)
where s is half the perimeter, or (a + b + c)/2

Instrumental Method

1. Planimeter: Measures irregular areas with high accuracy (error <1%).

💀 TOPO MAP CALCULATIONS
 Indian Numbering System
(Survey of India - SOI System)

In India, topo sheets are further subdivided for more precise mapping.

Step-by-Step Numbering System:

1. 1:1,000,000 (Million) Scale: The entire world is divided into 4° × 4° blocks with an alphanumeric
IMW reference. Example: E43, F44, etc.

2. 1:250,000 Scale (one degree): Each 1:1M sheet is divided into 16 smaller sheets of 1° × 1°. These
are numbered from A to P (top-left to bottom-right). Example: E43A, E43B, ..., E43P.
3. 1:50,000 Scale (half degree): Each 1° × 1° sheet is further divided into 4 sheets of 30' × 30'.
Numbered as 1, 2, 3, and 4 (top-left to bottom-right). Example: E43A1, E43A2, E43A3, E43A4.

4. 1:25,000 Scale (quarter degree): Each 1:50,000 sheet is further divided into 4 more sheets (15' ×
15'). Numbered as NE, NW, SE, SW (Northeast, Northwest, Southeast, Southwest). Example:
E43A1NW, E43A1NE, E43A1SW, E43A1SE.
Step 1: 1:1 Million Scale (International Map of the World [IMW]
System)

● The world is divided into 4° × 4° grid sheets.

● These are named with an alphanumeric code (Example: E43).

Step 2: 1:250,000 Scale (degree Sheets)

● Each 1:1 million sheet (4° × 4°) is divided into 16 smaller sheets.
● Each quarter sheet covers 1° × 1°.
● These sheets are labeled from A to P in a left-to-right, top-to-bottom order.
Step 3: 1:50,000 Scale (half degree)

● Each 1° × 1° sheet (e.g., E43A) is further divided into 4 sheets.

● Each of these covers 30' × 30' (30 minutes latitude × 30 minutes longitude).
● Numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4 (top-left to bottom-right).

Step 4: 1:25,000 Scale (quarter degree)

● Each 1:50,000 toposheet is divided into 4 smaller sheets.

● Each of these covers 15' × 15' (15 minutes latitude × 15 minutes longitude).
● Numbered as NW, NE, SW, SE (Northwest, Northeast, Southwest, Southeast
💀 Flow Lines
 Flow Lines and Diagrams
Flow lines are graphical representations used to show the movement of objects, people, goods, or
information from one location to another. They are commonly used in cartography and geography to
represent the flow of trade, migration, transportation, communication, and energy on maps.

Characteristics of Flow Lines:

1. Direction-Oriented – Flow lines indicate movement from a source to a destination, often marked
with arrows to show direction.

2. Variable Thickness – The width or thickness of a flow

line represents the volume or intensity of movement
(e.g., a thick line may indicate heavy traffic or large
trade volume).

3. Continuous or Discontinuous – Flow lines can be

continuous (unbroken, showing uninterrupted
movement) or discontinuous (dashed or segmented to
indicate periodic or uncertain movement).

4. Curved or Straight:

i. Straight lines are used for

direct routes (e.g., flight
paths).
ii. Curved lines are used to
represent actual movement
paths influenced by geography
(e.g., ocean currents).

5. Can Be Scaled or Unscaled:

i. Scaled Flow Lines proportionally represent the actual quantity of flow.

ii. Unscaled Flow Lines only show movement direction without an exact volume
representation.

6. Used in Various Fields – Flow lines are used in trade, migration studies, transportation networks,
oceanography (currents), meteorology (wind flow), and communication networks (data transfer
routes).

7. Representation of Real or Theoretical Movement – They can depict actual (real trade routes) or
hypothetical (proposed railway routes) flows.