Units 5-7: Simple Machines, Oscillations & Waves,

Temperature
Grade 9 Physics - Advanced Notes (Detailed)

March 28, 2025

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Unit 5: Simple Machines

Introduction: Simple machines are fundamental mechanical devices that make work easier
by modifying forces or distances. They form the basis of more complex machinery used
in everyday life.

5.1 Simple Machines and their Purposes

• Simple Machine Definition: A device that helps perform mechanical work with
less effort, typically by requiring only a single force to operate. Examples: axe,
knife, pulley, lever, inclined plane, screw, wheel and axle.

• Purpose: To make mechanical work easier. Work done is not reduced (often
slightly increased due to friction), but the way the work is done is changed.

• How Machines Help:

– Changing the direction of force: Applying force in one direction causes

movement in another (e.g., pulling down on a rope over a fixed pulley lifts a
load up).
– Multiplying speed or distance: A small movement of the effort results in
a larger movement of the load (e.g., bicycle wheels covering more ground than
pedal movement).
– Multiplying force: A small applied force (effort) results in a larger output
force (load) (e.g., using a lever to lift a heavy object).

• Energy Transfer: Simple machines are energy transferring devices. They transfer
mechanical energy, often converting a small input force over a larger distance into
a larger output force over a smaller distance, or vice versa. They do not create
energy.

• Input and Output:

– Effort (F or FE ): The input force applied to the machine by an external

agent (e.g., human, motor).
– Load (L or FL ): The output force exerted by the machine on the object
being moved or resisted (e.g., weight of the object being lifted).
– Work Input (Win ): Work done on the machine by the effort force. Win =
Effort × distance moved by effort.
– Work Output (Wout ): Work done by the machine on the load. Wout =
Load × distance moved by load.
– In an ideal machine (no friction), Win = Wout . In reality, Win > Wout due to
energy losses (mainly friction).

• Force vs. Speed Multipliers:

– If Load > Effort, the machine is a force multiplier.

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– If distance moved by load > distance moved by effort, the machine is a dis-
tance multiplier (or speed multiplier, as distance moved in the same time
implies speed). A machine typically cannot be both a force and distance
multiplier simultaneously due to energy conservation.

5.2 Simple Machines at Home

• Everyday objects often incorporate simple machines: knives (wedge), bottle open-
ers (lever), screws, doorknobs (wheel and axle), pulleys (window blinds), ramps
(inclined plane).

5.3 Simple Machines at Work Place

• Workplaces utilize simple machines extensively: hammers (lever), shovels (lever),
wheelbarrows (lever/wheel and axle), cranes (pulleys), jacks (screw).

5.4 Classification of Simple Machines

• Compound Machine: A machine made up of a combination of two or more
simple machines (e.g., bicycle, wire cutter).

• Six Types of Simple Machines: Traditionally categorized into two main groups:

1. Inclined Plane Family:

– Inclined Plane (Ramp)
– Wedge (two inclined planes back-to-back)
– Screw (inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder)
2. Lever Family:
– Lever
– Wheel and Axle (rotating lever)
– Pulley (grooved wheel, essentially a lever with rope)

5.5 Mechanical Advantage, Velocity Ratio and Efficiency of Sim-

ple Machine
Mechanical Advantage (MA)
• Definition: A measure of how much a machine multiplies the input force (effort).
It is the ratio of the output force (load) to the input force (effort).

•
Output force Load L
MA = = =
Input force Effort E
• Unitless: MA is a ratio of forces, so it has no units.

• Interpretation:

– M A > 1: Machine is a force multiplier (output force > input force).

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– M A = 1: Machine only changes direction of force.

– M A < 1: Machine multiplies distance/speed (output force < input force).

• Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA): The MA of a machine assuming no energy

losses (e.g., due to friction). Calculated based on distances moved.

• Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA): The MA measured in a real-world

scenario, including energy losses. AMA = Load / Actual Effort.

• In real machines, friction always exists, so AMA < IMA.

Velocity Ratio (VR)

• Definition: The ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved
by the load in the same amount of time.

•
distance moved by the effort
VR =
distance moved by the load
• Unitless: VR is a ratio of distances, so it has no units.

• Interpretation:

– V R > 1: Effort moves farther than the load (often force multipliers).
– V R = 1: Effort and load move the same distance (direction changers).
– V R < 1: Effort moves less distance than the load (distance/speed multipliers).

• VR depends only on the geometry of the machine, not on friction. Therefore, for
any simple machine, V R = IM A.

Efficiency (η)
• Definition: A measure of how well a machine converts work input into useful
work output. It is the ratio of work output to work input, often expressed as a
percentage.

•
Work output Wout
η= =
Work input Win
• Since Wout = Load×dLoad and Win = Effort×dEf f ort , and using M A = Load/Effort
and V R = dEf f ort /dLoad :

•
M A × Effort × dLoad MA
η= =
Effort × V R × dLoad VR
• Expressed as a percentage:

•
MA Wout
η(%) = × 100% = × 100%
VR Win

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• Unitless (ratio) or percentage (%).

• Real Machines: Due to energy losses (friction converting work input to heat),
Wout < Win , so η is always less than 1 (or less than 100%).

• Ideal Machine: Assumes no energy loss, Wout = Win , so η = 1 (or 100%), and
M A = V R = IM A.

Specific Simple Machines: MA, VR, Efficiency

• Levers:

– Consist of a rigid bar rotating around a fixed point (Fulcrum, F). Effort (E)
and Load (L) are applied at different points.
– Effort Arm (dE ): Distance from fulcrum to effort point.
– Load Arm (dL ): Distance from fulcrum to load point.
– Classes of Levers: Determined by relative positions of F, E, L.
∗ First Class: Fulcrum between Effort and Load (E - F - L or L - F - E).
Examples: seesaw, scissors, crowbar. MA can be >, =, or < 1.
∗ Second Class: Load between Fulcrum and Effort (F - L - E). Examples:
wheelbarrow, nutcracker, bottle opener. MA always > 1 (force multiplier).
∗ Third Class: Effort between Fulcrum and Load (F - E - L). Examples:
fishing pole, tweezers, broom, forearm lifting weight. MA always < 1
(distance/speed multiplier).
– Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA): Based on the principle of moments
(or conservation of energy for ideal case). IM A = V R = ddEL .
L
– Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA): AM A = E
.
AM A L/E
– Efficiency: η = IM A
= dE /dL
.

• Inclined Plane:

– Sloping surface connecting different heights. Reduces effort needed to lift an

object vertically, but increases distance moved along the slope. Primarily a
force multiplier.
– Variables: Length of slope (l), vertical height (h).
distance effort moves
– IM A = V R = distance load moves
= hl .
– AM A = EL . Load (L) is typically the weight of the object (mg), Effort (E) is
the force applied parallel to the slope.
AM A
– η= IM A
.

• Wedge:

– Two inclined planes joined back-to-back. Used to separate or split objects.

– Variables: Penetration length (l), thickness (t).
– IM A = V R = tl . A narrower (longer and thinner) wedge has higher IMA/VR.

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Resistance Force (Load)
– AM A = Applied Force (Effort)
.
AM A
– η= IM A
. Friction is often significant in wedges.

• Screw:

– An inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder (shaft). Used for fastening or

lifting.
– Variables: Pitch (p - distance between adjacent threads), radius (r) or diam-
eter (d) of the screw shaft/handle.
– Effort (E) is applied to turn the screw (often at radius r of handle/driver),
load (L) is the resistance force. Effort moves circumference (2πr) for one turn,
while load moves distance p.
distance effort moves 2πr πd
– IM A = V R = distance load moves
= p
(or p
).
L
– AM A = E
. Friction is very high in screws.
AM A
– η= IM A
. Usually very low due to friction.

• Wheel and Axle:

– A large wheel rigidly attached to a smaller axle (or shaft), rotating together
around the same axis.
– Two modes:
1. Effort applied to wheel (radius R), load attached to axle (radius r). Force
multiplier. Examples: screwdriver handle, doorknob, windlass.
2. Effort applied to axle (radius r), load moved by wheel (radius R). Dis-
tance/speed multiplier. Examples: car wheels driven by axle, fan blades.
– IM A = V R = Radius where Effort is applied
Radius where Load acts
= R
r
(for force multiplier) or r
R
(for
speed multiplier).
L
– AM A = E
.
AM A
– η= IM A
.

• Pulley System:

– Grooved wheel(s) with a rope or cable.

– Fixed Pulley: Axle is fixed. Changes direction of force. IM A = V R = 1.
AM A ≈ 1 (slightly less due to friction). Effort ≈ Load.
– Movable Pulley: Axle moves with the load. Multiplies force. IM A =
V R = 2. Effort ≈ Load/2. Effort moves twice the distance the load moves.
Disadvantage: Effort must move up/down with load.
– Compound Pulley (Block and Tackle): Combination of fixed and mov-
able pulleys. Increases mechanical advantage significantly.
– IM A = V R = N , where N is the number of rope segments directly supporting
the movable pulley(s) and the load.
L
– AM A = E
.
AM A
– η= IM A
.

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5.6 Designing Simple Machine

• Understanding the principles of simple machines allows for their application in
designing tools and devices to solve real-world problems, making tasks easier by
manipulating force, distance, or direction. Combining simple machines creates
compound machines capable of complex tasks.

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Unit 6: Mechanical Oscillation and Sound Wave

Introduction: Many natural and man-made systems exhibit oscillatory motion - a repeti-
tive back-and-forth movement around an equilibrium position. These oscillations often in-
volve energy transfer and can generate waves, which are disturbances propagating through
space or a medium.

6.1 Common Characteristics of Waves

• Oscillation (Periodic Motion): A motion that repeats itself over and over in a
regular cycle.

• Wave: A disturbance that propagates (travels) from a source, transferring energy

without necessarily transferring matter over long distances.

• Key Wave Characteristics:

– Rest Position (Equilibrium): The position of the medium’s particles (or

field) when undisturbed.
– Displacement: The instantaneous distance of a particle from its rest posi-
tion.
– Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of a particle from its rest po-
sition. Related to the energy carried by the wave. Unit: meters (m).
– Crest: The point of maximum positive displacement on a wave.
– Trough: The point of maximum negative displacement on a wave.
– Wavelength (λ): The spatial distance between two consecutive identical
points on a wave (e.g., crest-to-crest or trough-to-trough). Unit: meters (m).
– Period (T): The time taken for one complete oscillation or for one complete
wave to pass a given point. Unit: seconds (s).
– Frequency (f): The number of complete oscillations or waves passing a given
point per unit time. Unit: Hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 cycle/second (s−1 ).
– Relationship between Period and Frequency: They are reciprocals: f =
1/T and T = 1/f .
– Wave Speed (v): The speed at which the wave disturbance propagates
through the medium. v = distance
time
= Tλ . Substituting T = 1/f , we get the
fundamental wave equation: v = λf . Unit: meters per second (m/s).

6.2 String, Pendulum and Spring

These are common physical systems exhibiting oscillatory motion.

• Waves on a String:

– Flicking a stretched string creates a disturbance (pulse) that travels along it.
– The particles of the string oscillate (typically up and down) perpendicular to
the direction the pulse travels. This makes waves on a string an example of a
transverse wave.

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• Simple Pendulum:

– Consists of a point mass (bob) suspended by a light, inextensible string from

a fixed support.
– When displaced from its equilibrium (vertical) position and released, it swings
back and forth due to gravity, exhibiting periodic motion.
– Period (T): The time for one complete swing (back and forth). For small
angles of displacement: √
L
T = 2π
g
where L is the length of the pendulum and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
– The period depends only on length and gravity, not on the mass of the bob or
the amplitude (for small angles). Can be used to measure g accurately if L is
known precisely.

• Mass on a Spring:

– A mass attached to a spring fixed at the other end. When displaced from its
equilibrium position (where the spring is neither stretched nor compressed)
and released, it oscillates back and forth.
– Restoring Force: The spring exerts a force that always tries to return the
mass to the equilibrium position. This force is proportional to the displace-
ment (x) from equilibrium but opposite in direction.
– Hooke’s Law: Describes the restoring force: Fres = −kx. The negative sign
indicates the force opposes displacement. k is the spring constant (stiffness),
measured in N/m. A stiffer spring has a larger k. The applied force needed
to stretch/compress the spring is Fapp = kx.
– Period (T): The time for one complete oscillation. For a mass m on a spring
with constant k (on a smooth horizontal surface):
√
m
T = 2π
k

– The period depends only on the mass and the spring constant.

6.3 Propagation of Waves and Energy Transmission

• Waves transfer energy from one point to another without the bulk transfer of the
medium itself. The particles of the medium oscillate around their equilibrium po-
sitions, passing the disturbance (and energy) along.

• Classification based on Medium Requirement:

– Mechanical Waves: Require a material medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to

travel through. The wave propagates as vibrations of the medium’s particles.
Examples: sound waves, water waves, waves on strings, seismic waves.

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– Electromagnetic Waves (EM Waves): Do not require a material medium;

they can travel through a vacuum (like space). Consist of oscillating electric
and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propa-
gation. Examples: light, radio waves, microwaves, X-rays. Always transverse.

• Classification based on Direction of Vibration:

– Transverse Waves: Particle vibration is perpendicular to the direction of

wave propagation (energy transfer). Examples: waves on a string, EM waves,
ripples on water surface (partly transverse). Have crests and troughs.
– Longitudinal Waves: Particle vibration is parallel to the direction of wave
propagation (energy transfer). Examples: sound waves in air, ultrasound,
compression waves in a spring. Consist of compressions (regions of high
density/pressure) and rarefactions (regions of low density/pressure). Com-
pressions correspond roughly to crests, rarefactions to troughs.

6.4 Sound Waves

• Nature: Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves.

• Production: Generated by vibrating objects (sources). The vibrations cause dis-

turbances in the surrounding medium.

• Propagation: Require a material medium (solid, liquid, gas). The vibrations are
passed from particle to particle as compressions and rarefactions. Sound cannot
travel through a vacuum.

• Speed of Sound (v): Depends on the properties of the medium, specifically its
elasticity (how quickly particles return to equilibrium) and density.

– Generally, vsolids > vliquids > vgases because particles are closer and interactions
stronger in solids.
– In Air: Speed depends on temperature. At 0°C, v ≈ 331 m/s. At temperature
TC (in Celsius): √
TC
v ≈ 331 1 + (m/s)
273
(This formula from the text is an approximation, often simplified as v ≈
(331 + 0.6TC ) m/s for temperatures near room temp). Speed increases with
temperature.
– Speed is largely independent of pressure and frequency (for audible range) in
a given medium at constant temperature.

• Wave Phenomena Exhibited by Sound:

– Reflection: Bouncing of sound waves off surfaces. Reflection from hard sur-
faces causes echoes (if the reflected sound is heard distinctly after the orig-
inal sound). Used in SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) to measure
distances underwater.

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– Refraction: Bending of sound waves as they pass from one medium to an-
other or through parts of a medium with different temperatures or densities
(affecting speed). Explains why sound travels farther/clearer at night (cool air
near ground bends sound down) than during the day (warm air near ground
bends sound up).
– Diffraction: Bending of sound waves as they pass around obstacles or through
openings. Allows us to hear sounds from sources not directly in our line of
sight (e.g., around corners). More noticeable for longer wavelengths (lower
frequencies).
– Interference (Superposition): Occurs when sound waves from different
sources meet. Can be constructive (louder sound) or destructive (fainter sound
or silence).

6.5 Superposition of Waves

• Superposition Principle: When two or more waves pass through the same point
in a medium simultaneously, the resultant displacement at that point is the vector
sum of the displacements that each individual wave would cause.

• Interference: The phenomenon resulting from the superposition of waves.

– Constructive Interference: Occurs when waves meet in phase (e.g., crest

meets crest, trough meets trough). The resultant amplitude is the sum of the
individual amplitudes (greater amplitude).
– Destructive Interference: Occurs when waves meet out of phase (e.g., crest
meets trough). The resultant amplitude is the difference between the individ-
ual amplitudes (smaller amplitude). If amplitudes are equal, cancellation can
be complete (zero amplitude).

• Standing Waves (Stationary Waves):

– Formed by the superposition of two identical waves (same amplitude, fre-

quency, wavelength) traveling in opposite directions in the same medium (often
by reflection of a wave back upon itself).
– The wave pattern appears stationary, oscillating in time but fixed in location.
Energy is stored, not propagated.
– Characterized by:
∗ Nodes (N): Points of permanent zero displacement (complete destructive
interference).
∗ Antinodes (A): Points of maximum displacement (maximum construc-
tive interference). Amplitude is twice the individual wave amplitude.
– Distances: Node-to-Node = λ/2; Antinode-to-Antinode = λ/2; Node-to-adjacent-
Antinode = λ/4.
– Examples: Vibrating guitar strings fixed at both ends (nodes at ends), air
columns in musical instruments.

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6.6 Characteristics of Sound Waves (Auditory Perception)

• How humans perceive sound waves, related to their physical properties.

• Pitch: The perceived highness or lowness of a sound. Primarily determined by the

sound wave’s frequency (f). Higher frequency → higher pitch.

• Loudness: The perceived intensity or ”volume” of a sound. Primarily determined

by the sound wave’s amplitude (A). Larger amplitude → louder sound. Related
to sound intensity (power per unit area). Measured objectively in decibels (dB),
a logarithmic scale. Sound becomes harmful > 75-80 dB, painful > 120 dB (sound
pollution).

• Timber (Quality or Tone Color): The characteristic that distinguishes between

two sounds of the same pitch and loudness produced by different sources (e.g., a
violin vs. a piano playing the same note). Determined by the complex mixture
of the fundamental frequency and its overtones (harmonics) present in the sound
wave.

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