Physics: Elastic properties of solids
Elasticity :3 segments of elasticity
Plasticity
Terms associated on elasticity
Hooke’s Law
Strength and intensity of materials
Energy stored in a wire
Complex problems on elasticity
Viscosity is a name given to an internal friction which exists between
two layers of a liquid or gas in motion.
When a material is elasticity it regains it original shape and size after
undergoing distortion of deformity.
Elasticity is the ability of a material to regain it original shape and size after
undergoing stretching, compression, distortion or deformity. It is denoted by
£- epsilon.
The s.i unit of elasticity is Angstrom (A°)
1A°=10-¹⁰m
2A°=2×10-¹⁰m
There are three segments of elasticity
1. Rigidity Modulus (shear modulus)
2. Bulk Modulus
3. Young modulus
Plasticity is the ability of a material to remain in its position.
Terms associated on elasticity
1.Breaking point
2.Yield point
3.Maximum load
4. Elastic constant or force constant or stiffness
5. Proportional limit
6. Elastic limit
According to Robert Hooke it states that provided that the elastic limit of an
elastic material is not exceeded, the extension e is directly proportional to
the force applied.
F directly proportional to e, k
F=Ke
F/e=k
K=F/e=N/m
K=N/m or Nm-¹ -s.i unit
K=F/e=m/a=MLT-²/L, K=MT-²
Strength or intensity of material
There are 3 strength of materials
1. Tensile or comparative stress: this can be defined as the ratio of force
applied per unit area. It is measured in Nm-²
Mathematically
Stress=Force/area
S=F/A=N/m=N|m² or Nm-² - unit
S=F/A =ma/A=MLT-²/L²=ML-¹L²
2. Tensile or comparative strain can be defined as the extension produced
per original length. It is unitless (it has no unit). It has no dimension i.e
it is dimensionless
Strain=extension produced/original length
S=e/lo
Unit, S =e/lo=m/m=1
Dimension, S=e/lo=L/L=1
3. Young modulus can be defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile
strain. It is measured in Nm-². The dimension is ML-¹T-²
Ƴ=stress/strain
Ƴ=F/A|e/o
Ƴ=F/A×lo/e
6=Flo/Ae
Note that stress and young modulus posses the same unit and dimension
Energy stored in wire
The energy stored in a wire is measured in joules J while the larger unit is in
KJ
For every energy stored
E=1/2f×e=1/2fe
Questions:
1. The extension in a spring when 5gwt was hung from it was 0.56. If
Hooke’s law is obeyed what is the extension cost by a load of 20g
weight.
Solution
F1=5gwt, F2=20gwt
E1=0.36, e2=?
F1/e1=F2/e2. E2=F2e1=20×0.56/4×0.56
E2=2.24
2. A catalput used to hold a stone of mass 500g us extended by 20cm
with an applied force F. If the stone leaves with a velocity of 40m|s,
calculate the value of F.
Solution.
M=500g=50/1000=0.5kg
V=40m/s, e=20cm=20/100=0.2m
F=?
Es=K.E
1/2fe=1/2mv²
½×0.2f=1/2×0.5×(40)²
0.1f=1/2×0.5×80
0.1f/0.1=400/0.1
F=4000N, f=4KN
3. A force of 15N stretches a spring to a total length of 30cm. An
additional of 10N stretches the spring 5cm further. Find the natural
length of the spring
F1=15N
F2=15+10=25N
L1=30cm
L2=30+5=35cm
F1/l1-lo=F2/l2-lo
15/30-10=25/35-10
750-25lo=525-15lo
750-525=15lo+25lo
225/10=10lo/10,lo=22.5
4. A spring of force constant 1500Nm- is acted upon by constant force of
75N. Calculate the potential energy stored in the spring.
F=75N, e=?
K=1500N/m
P.e =1/2fe
F=Ke
E=F/k=75/1500
E=0.05
1/2fe=1/2×75×0.05
P.e =1.9
05/03/25
MACHINE
This is a device that makes work easier, faster and more conveniently. It can
also be defined as a device in which a force is applied at one end (effort) in
order to overcome a resisting force (load) at the other end.
Examples of machines are scissors, pulley, screw jack etc..
TERMS USED UNDER MACHINE
1. Mechanical advantage: this is the ability of the machine to overcome a
larger force(load) with the use of small effort.
It can also be defined as the ratio of load to effort.
Mechanical advantage=load/effort. It is unitless. Since Mechanical
advantage is in ratio of 2 forces, it is also known as force ratio.
The relationship between Mechanical advantage and load is graphically
given as:
Mechanical advantage can also be given as
M.A=output force/input force.
Note: the mechanical advantage of a mechain depends on friction
2. Velocity ratio: this can be defined as the ratio of the distance moved by
effort to the distance moved by load.
Velocity ratio=distance moved by effort/distance moved by load.
It is unitless.
The relationship between the velocity ratio and load is graphically
given as:
Note the velocity ratio of the machine depends on the geometry(i.e
size,shape of the machine)
3. Efficiency: this is defined as ratio of the work done by a machine to the
ratio of the work done on the machine.
Efficiency=work done by the machine/work done on the machine
×100%
Efficiency=M.A/V.R×100%
Note: The efficiency of a practical machine is usually less than 100% due to
friction between the moving part of the machine.
A perfect or an Ideal machine has efficiency=100% due to the following
reasons:
1. Absence of Friction.
2. Mechanical advantage=Velocity ratio
3. Work done by a machine=work done on a machine
Example 1
500J of work is required by a machine to raise a load of 250n through a
vertical distance of 1.6m the efficiency of the machine is ?
Efficiency=work done by a machine/work done on a machine ×100%
=250N×1.6m÷500J ×100%
=400J×100%÷500J
=80%
2. A machine having a v.r of 4 requires a weight of 20kg to overcome a
weight of 60kg. The efficiency of the machine is ?
V.R=4
M.A=L/E=60kg/20kg
E=M.A/V.R×100%
E=3/4×100%
E=75%
3.A machine has an efficiency of 75%. The work done when the
machine is used to raise a load of 50kg through a vertical distance of
6m is?
Efficiency=work done by a machine/work done on a machine ×100%
75%=50×10×6/w×100%
W=50×10×6×100%/75%
W=4000J
Types of Machine
1. Lever: this is the simplest form of machine that is used to overcome a
larger load with the use of small effort . A lever has 3 main part
Pivot/fulcrum : a fixed point that allows rotation to happen.
Effort: the applied force
Load: the resisting force
Classes/orders of a lever
The arrangement of the part of a lever gives the class or order of the lever
1. First class lever: This is the type of a lever in which the pivot or the
fulcrum is between the load and the effort.examples are a pair of
scissors, seesaw,crow bar, pliers, hand pump, claw hammer. In this
type the mechanical advantage maybe greater than 1, less than 1, or
equal to 1. In this type of lever the effort and the load moves in
opposite directions.
2. Second class lever: This is the type of lever in which the load is
between the effort and the fulcrum.e.g wheelbarrow, nut cracker , lime
squeezer, paper shift cover, bottle openers etc. in this type of lever the
mechanical advantage is always greater than 1. The effort and the load
moves in the same direction.
3. Third class lever: this is the type of lever in which the effort is between
the pivot and load.e.g forearm,sugar tong, fishing rod etc. in this type
of lever the mechanical advantage is usually less than 1. The effort and
the load moves in the same direction.
Note: a lever works based on the principle of moment.
Example:
1. Which of the following levers has the greatest M.A (the numbers
indicated are the relative distances )
2. Pulley: this is the type of machine used hold/weigh heavy load such as
bag of cement, bricks, up or down a building.
V.R=No. Of pulleys
Example
1. A block and tackle pulley system made up of 5 pulleys is used to
raise a load of 700n with am effort of 200n. The efficiency of the
system is?
M.A=L/E=700N/200N=3.5
V.R=5
E=M.A/V.R×100%
=3.5÷5×100%
=70%
3.Inclined plane: This is a type of machine that is used to raise or lower
heavy such as drums up or from a fall of a lorry.
V.R=dE/dL=L/h=1/sinø
4.Screw jack: this is a type of machine used to raise or lower heavy load
such as big Stone, car.
The distance between the two successive thread of a screw is known
as PITCH.
V.R=dE/dL=2πr/P=2πl/P
Example
1. A screw jack has a pitch of 0.5cm and a tummy bar of length . The
V.R is?
V.R=2πl/p
2×π×20cm/0.5cm
=80π
2.the handle of a screw jack of pitch 4mm turns through a circle of r
21cm when the jack is used to raise a load. If π=22/7, the v.r is?
2×22/7×21cm/4mm=
2×22/7×210mm/4mm=330
5.Wheel and axle: this is a type of machine that is used to raise or
lower heavy bucket of water .
The V.r =radius of the wheel (R)/radius of the axle(r)
Example
A wheel and axle is used to raise of 700N with an effort of 200N. If the
radii of the wheel and axle are 40cm and 10cm respectively . What is
the efficiency
M.A=L/E=720/200=3.6
V.r =R/r=40/10=4
E=M.A/V.R×100%
=3.6/4×100
40%
5. The gear system is a type of machine that is used to alter speed and
sometimes direction or rotation. The V.r of a gear system is given
as=angular of the smaller gear/angular speed of the larger gear=no.
Of teeth of the larger gear/number of teeth of the smaller gear
V.r=Ws/Wl=Ns/Nl
Note: the smaller gear always rotates faster
Example
Two intermeshing gear wheels have 25 and 75 teeth respectively. If the
smaller wheel rotates as 60rev s-¹, the larger wheel rotates at?
20revs.
Ws/Wl=Ns/Nl
60/Wl=75/25
60/Wl=3
3Wl=60
El=60/3=20revs-¹
Wedge and axle: this is a type of machine such as axe that is used to
split timbers
The velocity ratio is =y/x
