"The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment"

Chapter 17 Reading Guide

Also complete the AMSCO ch10 essential question!

Name: Claire Elden Period: 2A

1.) Read the yellow section on p.502-3. What did the term “Enlightenment” mean in the 18th century? Who was Marie
Therese de Geoffrin? What role did women play in the Enlightenment?

The enlightenment continued to emphasize reason and evidence over religion and tradition. In the 18th century, the
scientific ideas of the 17th century spread into society changing the way that people sought answers and organized social
life. Marie Therese de Geoffrin was a Parisian socialite who hosted gatherings of intellectuals to discuss topics in
philosophy and art that were part of a changing world. Here meetings helped spread the ideas of the philosophes.

2.) How was the Enlightenment, in many ways, an extension of the Scientific Revolution of the previous century or so?
What fundamental beliefs carried on throughout both?

The Enlightenment expanded on the scientific revolution's emphasis on reason and evidence in the scientific world, and
it applied those ideas to the realm of human relations and social sciences. **The philosophes believed that there were
"natural laws" that governed human actions.

3.) Who was Bernard de Fontanelle? Why was he such a pivotal character of the Enlightenment if he never did any
actual experiments or made any new discoveries?

A French scholar and writer who popularized scientific ideas and helped make them accessible to the masses.

4.) What is skepticism? How was this “New Skepticism” different from the previous century?

Skepticism is an approach to knowledge that begins with doubt and requires evidence to support conclusions. In the
18th century scientific doubt was applied to religious assumptions about social life.

5.) Who was Pierre Bayle? What was his attitude towards religion?

Bayle was a French intellectual who argued for religious toleration. He believed that people should determine their own
beliefs instead of having beliefs assigned to them by authorities such as the Crown.

6.) The term “noble savage” is of significance in the works of some philosophes. What is it? How is it important?

The term "noble savage" was a result of voyages of discovery where explorers found native societies that were often
simpler and different than European society.

7.) How are the ideas of “skepticism” and “cultural relativism” connected? What is “cultural relativism” and why were
people thinking about it?

The discoveries by explorers caused intellectuals to question the foundations of European society and develop the
concept of "cultural relativism." In some cases the Europeans found the foreign societies to be superior to their own.
Skepticism allowed intellectuals to question the assumptions of tradition. Knowledge of the foreign societies provided
them with evidence that societies could be formed in alternate ways.

8.) Spielvogel credits two Englishmen, Isaac Newton and John Locke, for being the most intellectually inspirational
pre-Enlightenment thinkers. We already learned about Newton. Who is Locke? What did he write? Why were his ideas
new and significant?

Locke wrote many important works. His Essay Concerning Human Understanding presented the idea of the tabula rasa
(blank slate). Locke argued that human minds are blank when they are born and their minds are created through their
senses, not through heredity. Locke’s idea of the blank slate was another argument against religious thinking. If people
could change the environment, then they could change the human condition.

9.) What is a “philosophe” and what kinds of roles did they play in society? What was the capital of the Enlightenment?

Philosophe is a general term, similar to "intellectual." The philosophes were journalists, professors, statesmen,
economists, etc. Some philosophes were philosophers, but most were not. They came from both nobility & middle class,
and a few from lower class.

10.) What were the ideas put forth by Baron de Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws? Although he was French, who did
he use as a model example of government? Why?

Montesquieu attempted to apply scientific ideas to political thought. His 1748 The Spirit of the Laws compared different
forms of governments. He focused on the British government because he thought their constitution and separation of
powers provided the greatest freedom and security for the state.

11.) What class was Voltaire from and what line of work brought him early success? Of which elements in French society
and government was Voltaire most critical?

Voltaire grew up in a prosperous middle-class family. He was a critic of individual religions but believed the toleration
allowed the coexistence of many different religions without any one of them dominating. He was a critic of absolute
monarchy and religious intoleration. He was an advocate for freedom of thought.

12.) What was the “Calas Affair” and how did it relate to Voltaire’s opinion of the church?

Jean Calas was a French Protestant who was accused of murdering his son in order to prevent him from becoming
Catholic. Calas was tortured and forced to admit guilt. Voltaire advocated on behalf of Calas who was exonerated at a
2nd trial which determined that his son committed suicide.

13.) What is “Deism”? Are deists atheists or not? Do they believe in God? If so, how are they different than typical
Christians?

Deism was a belief about the nature of God, based on a Newtonian conception of the universe. For Deists, God set the
world in motion, but from that point was uninvolved in a world where the mechanics described by Newton was
responsible for everything

14.) Who is Denis Diderot and what is he best known for helping create?

Diderot created an encyclopedia, and worked to make it affordable so that it could be distributed to the mass populace.
He saw it as a weapon against superstition and the old French society.

15.) Spielvogel says that many of the philosophes of the 18th century attempted to uncover “Natural Laws” pertaining to
the “Science of Man.” What did he mean by this? Were they successful? Why or why not?
In the 18th century, philosophes attempted to apply Newton' approach to the cosmos to the nature of man. The effort
created the social sciences, which attempted to study society and the human condition using tools similar to those used
in the traditional areas of science. *The philosophes believed that there were "natural laws" that governed human
actions. *The "science of man" refers to social sciences.

16.) Who is David Hume? What was his famous work entitled and what did he argue in it?

David Hume was a Scottish philosopher who wrote Treatise on Human Nature. He attempted to introduce the
experimental method into human moral questions.

17.) Who are the “Physiocrats” and what did they study? What were the names of some notable physiocrats?

The Physiocrats were the early creators of the field of economics. Francois Quesnay was one of the leaders. They
rejected the mercantilist approach to economics and introduced free market ideas.

18.) In what respect did physiocrats reject (or repudiate) mercantilist economic beliefs? What did they stress as being
different from what mercantilists fundamentally believed? What is “laissez-faire” economics?

The Physiocrates rejected the idea of state control of the economy. The idea of laissez-faire was the idea of letting people
choose through market mechanisms, rather than having the state set prices and controlling the supply of goods. **They
believed in the "natural" economic forces of demand and supply.

19.) What did Adam Smith write in The Wealth of Nations? How was his argument just slightly different than the
physiocrats? What is “economic liberalism” and is this term the same as what we view as “liberal” today? Why not?

Adam Smith rejected mercantilist policies of tariffs and protectionism and advocated for free trade (better to buy
product from another country if cheaper than producing). Like the physiocrats, Smith believed that the state should not
interfere in economic matters. He also believed that labor constituted the true wealth of a nation, unlike the physiocrats
believed that land constituted the only source of wealth, which could be increased only by agriculture. !9C “economic
liberalism” refers to the belief in the economic liberty of the individual, not to the social or political liberal ideology of
today.

20.) How were Paul d’Holbach’s views considered rather extreme, or radical, for his time?

Paul d’Holbach (1723-89) believed in atheism and materialism. In System of Nature (1770), Paul d’Holbach’s argued that
God was a product of the human mind and that people needed only reason. He believed that people should lead moral
lives not because of God, but to better society and others.

21.) Why is Marie-Jean de Condorcets’s view of humanity both ironic and tragic?

Marie-Jean de Condorcet (1743-94) believed that humans were about to enter a final stage of perfection with the spread
of science and reason. However, he was imprisoned during the French Revolution and died in prison.

22.) Jean-Jacques Rousseau has to be one of the more complex figures of the Enlightenment. His ideas are at times
obscure and contradicting. Do the best you can to describe his views on the following topics.

In Origins of the Inequality of Mankind, Rousseau states that humans were happy in their state of nature or primitive
conditions and equal. However, laws to preserve private property have made people unequal and unhappy. In The Social
Contract Rousseau wrote about an agreement between the entire society and government. By participating directly in
government, people establish laws reflecting the general will at the common good.
 a.) Government: In a state governed by the general will, laws and policies are made based on what is beneficial
for everyone, not just for a particular group or individual. When citizens participate directly in the governance
process, the laws they establish are an expression of the general will.

b.) The Social Contract (1762) - an agreement between the entire society and government; society should be
governed by the general will of its members and that a legitimate state exists only through the consent of the
governed., offering a model of democracy.

c.) The General Will - refers to the collective will of a society's citizens as a whole, aimed at the common good or
public interest, rather than the sum of individual desires or interests.

d.) Individual Freedom - Obedience to laws is an act of freedom. He believed that following rules that are best for
all, was best for the individual. This is idealistic, but set principles of participatory democracy,

e.) Education - believed that education should foster, not restrict children’s natural instincts. He believed in the
balance between heart & mind, sentiment & reason. This was the beginning of the 19C Romanticism intellectual
movement. However, he preached a sedentary life for women to care for children and husbands.

23.) How did the Enlightenment, in some ways, reinforce the same old gender values that had been practiced in
pre-Enlightenment times?

17C & 18C, most male intellectuals continued to believe that the "natural" biological nature of women made them
inferior to men and destined to rear children. However, Diderot and Voltaire believed that men and women were not
that different.

24.) Who was Mary Astell? What were two major ideas she argued?

Mary Astell argued that women were just as capable as men of learning and needed to be better educated. She also
argued for equality in marriage.

25.) Who was Mary Wollstonecraft? What did she write? What contradictions did she point out from other male
Enlightenment thinkers?

Founder of European feminism, she argued that the subjugation of women to men was wrong, just as the subjugation of
subjects to monarchs and slaves to owners. Women should have equal rights in education & economic & political life as
men.

26.) In terms of social class, who most benefited from the Enlightenment? Why? Who were most likely to oppose such a
movement? Who was least affected by the Enlightenment?

The Enlightenment appealed to aristocracy and upper middle classes of major cities most. The common people were
least affected.

27.) What are Salons? What function did they serve in the 17th and 18th centuries? Who ran them? What other venues
of the time had similar functions?

Salons were rooms in wealthy urban homes where the literate elite gathered to discuss ideas of the philosophes. Women
were often hostesses, but the status of the salon depended on the males the hostess attracted. Coffeehouses, cafes and
libraries were also important.

28.) How is Rococo art different from the Baroque (hint, be very deliberate and specific about how you answer this
one… ALWAYS avoid using generic terms like “more detailed” or “realistic” when describing any art style)
Rococo is filled with grace and gentle motion instead of majesty, power, and movement.

29.) What are some examples of Rococo art and architectural styles? Who are the artists that created each? (hint, name
at least 3)

"Return from Cythera" (Antoine Watteau), "The Swing" (Jean-Honore Fragonard), and Vierzehnheiligen (Balthasar
Neumann).

30.) Fill out the chart below describing music of the 17th and 18th centuries.

COMPOSER YEARS FAMOUS PIECES BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF WHAT THEY

Johann Sebastian 1685-1750 Brandenburg concertos, toccata known for his complex counterpoint
Bach and fugue in D minor, Mass in B and contributions to Baroque music.
minor

George Friedrich 1685-1759 Messiah, water music, music for Celebrated for his operas, oratorios,
Handel the royal fireworks and choral works; significant in
Baroque music.

Franz Joseph 1732-1809 the creation, symphony no. 94 Called the father of the symphony and
Haydn (“surprise”), string quartets the father of the string quartet

Wolfgang 1756-1791 symphony no 40, The Magic Flute, renowned for his symphonies, operas,
Amadeus Mozart Eine kleine Nachtmusik and chamber music; a key figure of
classical music

31.) What is the significance of the development of the novel during this time? What makes novels different than other
books? To which audience were novels most appealing? What are some more notable novelists?

Novels could appeal to a large audience and could enforce a moral understanding with the reader. Novels didn't really
have any rules and were open to experimentation. They were most appealing to both women readers and authors. Some
notable authors include Samuel Richardson and Richardson Henry Fielding.

32.) How did the writing of history change in the period of the Enlightenment from how it was written by humanists of
the Renaissance? What was emphasized? What were the weaknesses?

Writers in the Renaissance focused on the actual events instead of focusing on God. They also expanded from just
politics. However, they were not impartial; they tried to teach as well as inform.

33.) What is the difference between “high culture” and “popular culture”? What parts of society made up each group?
What role did print media play in the 18th century?

"High culture" was the culture of the literary and artistic world, while "popular culture" was the culture of the mass
majority. Media gave literature to the general public.
34.) How did education change in the 18th century? Who obtained an education during this era? What did their
education focus upon, and what reforms were made toward the end of the 18th century?

Education was mostly available to the upper classes and was believed to be there to keep people in their class. They
concentrated on Greek and Latin classics.

35.) How were punishments handled almost everywhere in Europe? How frequently was the death penalty invoked?
What differences existed between social classes in terms of judicial punishments?

Cruel torture was often used to get confessions and punishments were cruel as well. The death penalty was used very
often. Lower classes' punishments were more cruel than the higher ones.

36.) Who is Cesare Beccaria? What did he write? When did he write it? What did he argue about capital punishment?

Cesare Beccaria was an Italian philosophe. He wrote On Crimes and Punishment. He argued for a free trial and
punishments should not be brutal.

37.) How was medicine conducted in the 17th and 18th centuries? Was there much forward progress during this time?
What were the differences between physicians, surgeons (or barber-surgeons), and apothecaries? How were they
regarded in society?

Medicine was primarily done crudely but there was some change arising. Physicians were university graduates, surgeons
bled the patients and performed crude surgery., and apothecaries served mostly the lower classes.

38.) What role did “festivals” or “fetes” play in popular culture? How was “Carnival” different from other festivals?

Festivals were a rare time for the common person to rest. Carnival was a celebration in the weeks leading up to Lent, it
was a very joyful and chaotic celebration.

39.) What function did taverns play in places like England and Russia? What effect did alcohol have on the social classes?

They created a sense of community and functioned as regular gathering places. Alcohol further separated the social
classes.

40.) What are chapbooks? How did literacy amongst the lower classes in France spread in this time?

Chapbooks are brochures that advertised spiritual and secular material like lives of saints and inspirational stories
competed with crude satires and adventure stories. Literacy spread throughout the lower class through chapbooks as
well as Protestant primary reform schools.

41.) What was the attitude of the ruling classes of educating the poor? Why do you think this was the case?

The ruling class feared education and the consequences of teaching the lower class anything (it might threaten their
status, power, and dignity). The virtues of hard work deference to superiors were common education topics to the poor
that the ruling class could keep their power and the lower class would be obedient to them.

42.) Both the Catholic and Protestant churches found themselves in a similar position during these centuries. What roles
did they play?

They were both losing authority but still possessed power in their government.

43.) What happened to the Jesuits during this time? What two greater trends did this collapse represent in terms of the
direction the Catholic church was heading during the 18th century?
The society was dissolved. This represented the papal power in Europe's decline.

44.) How much progress was made toward religious tolerance during this time?

Overall, leaders were still wary of religious toleration. Some changes were made, however (especially in Austria with
Joseph II).

45.) What are pogroms and who were most often targeted by them? How did the philosophes react to this?

Pogroms were the attacks and ransacking of mostly religious groups - mostly Jews. Philosophes were mostly accepting of
Jews but some were not (including Diderot).

46.) Religious devotion remained strong in the 18th century despite skepticism and deism. Spielvogel argues that because
of these movements, however, some theologians moved to a more “rational” Christianity, favoring greater depths of
religious experience. What were a few approaches to accomplishing this?

Pietism was a response to desire for a personal devotion to God. Methodism arose out of a need for spiritual experience.

AMSCO Chapter 10 essential question reflection 1-3 paragraphs

1. In one to three paragraphs, explain how spreading the principles of the Scientific Revolution led to an emphasis on
reason.

Kalma argued that the spread of the principles of the Scientific Revolution fundamentally shifted society’s approach to
understanding the world, placing a new emphasis on reason and empirical observation. During the Scientific Revolution,
thinkers like Galileo, Newton, and Kepler challenged traditional ideas by using experimentation, observation, and
mathematical reasoning to explain natural phenomena. Their successes demonstrated the power of systematic inquiry
and evidence-based conclusions, which in turn encouraged people to apply similar methods of thinking to other fields.

As these scientific principles spread beyond the realm of natural philosophy, they influenced philosophers, political
theorists, and intellectuals, who began to advocate for a rational approach to questions of ethics, governance, and
human nature. Enlightenment thinkers, inspired by the achievements of science, promoted the idea that reason should
guide human actions and societal structures. They argued that just as scientific inquiry could unveil the laws of nature,
logical analysis and empirical evidence could uncover the laws of human society and morality.

This new emphasis on reason had profound effects on European society, as it challenged traditional authority and
dogma. People began to question long-standing beliefs that were accepted without evidence, leading to a cultural shift
toward individual inquiry and skepticism of unquestioned authority. This intellectual movement laid the groundwork for
modern scientific, political, and social institutions, emphasizing reason as a central value in understanding and organizing
human experience.