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ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY
1. Introduction To Ecology
● Ecology is the study of organisms and how they interact with the environment around them.
● The term was coined by the German zoologist, Ernst Haeckel, in 1866 to describe the economies of living
forms.
● It comes from the Greek word ‘Oikos’ meaning home or place to live in and ‘logos’ meaning study.
1.1. Types of Ecology
Global Ecology
● It is the study of the Earth’s ecosystems among the land, oceans, and atmosphere.
Landscape Ecology
● It deals with spatial distribution, patterns, and behaviors across large geographical areas.
● Landscape ecologists might study the impact of development on a particular species of native grass in a specific area.
Population Ecology
● It studies the rise and fall in the number of a species.
● Population ecologists may compare the population of a species near a new food source to a population that
lacks access to that food source.
Microbial Ecology
● It looks at the smallest fundamental levels of life, that is, the cellular level.
● Involves mainly the first two life kingdoms: Kingdom Monera and Kingdom Protista.
● Connections are made between microbes and their relationships with each other and their environments.
Behavioral Ecology
● It studies the different ways organisms evolve and adapt to changes in their habitat.
● Behavioral ecologists often study mating patterns, or what characteristics male and female animals prefer
when seeking to reproduce.
Community Ecology
● It focuses on how interactions between living things alter community structure.
● Community ecologists study interspecific interactions, like predator-prey and competition.
Ecosystem Ecology
● It is the study of interactions between living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) elements within an ecosystem
framework.
● It includes understanding how things like climate and soil composition affect the behaviours and interactions
of populations from different species.
Deep Ecology
● A new area of study which proposes that human beings function as a part of the environment, not in opposition to it.
● It is more related to philosophy and political science than other branches of ecology.
1.2. Autecology and Synecology
Autecology Synecology
Study of an individual organism or individual species or Study of groups of organisms or many species or
a population in relation to their environment. communities in relation to their environment.
Also called population ecology. Also called community ecology.
Comparatively simple experimental and inductive. Complex, philosophical and deductive.
Example: Study of Zebra population in relation to its
Example: Study of the entire grassland ecosystem.
environment

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2. Levels of ecological organisations

Individual
● Organism that has the ability to act or function independently.
● Single, may be any type of living organism like plant, bacterium, fungi, etc.
Population
● Total of all living organisms of the same species living and interacting in a particular area and are capable of
interbreeding.
● The main limiting factors for the growth of a population are abiotic and biotic components.
Community
● Different types of population interacting at a particular geological area form a community.
● Two Types: Major community and Minor community
Major Community
● A large community that functions as a self-regulating, self-sustaining, and independent unit.
● Major communities are relatively independent of other communities and include several minor communities.
● Example: a pond ecosystem.
Minor Community
● A more compact community that is not individually self-sustaining and relies on interactions with other
communities.
● Example: a collection of organisms living in a piece of deadwood.
Ecosystem
● A naturally occurring assemblage
of organisms living together with
their environment and functioning
as a loose unit.
● It is a relatively self-contained,
dynamic system composed of a
natural community along with its
physical environment.
Biome
● The world’s major communities,
classified according to the
predominant vegetation and
characterized by adaptations
of organisms to that particular
environment.
Biosphere
● It is made up of the parts of Earth
where life exists—all ecosystems.
● A highly interacting zone comprising
atmosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere.
Figure.1. Levels of Organisations in Ecology

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3. Processes at different levels of ecological organisations

3.1. Population
3.1.1. Population Density
● It is the concentration of individuals within a species in a specific geographic locale.
● It can be used to describe the location, growth, and migration of many organisms.
3.1.2. Population Distribution
● Population distribution describes how the individuals are distributed, or spread throughout their habitat.
Patterns of Population Distribution

Uniform
● Organisms are evenly spaced over the area they occupy.
● This is typical of species in which individuals compete for a scarce environmental resource, such as water in a desert.
Random
● Organisms have an unpredictable distribution.
● This is typical of species in which individuals do not interact strongly.
Clumped
● Organisms are clustered together in groups and this may reflect a patchy distribution of resources.
● This is the most common pattern of population distribution.
3.1.3. Factors Affecting Population Growth
● Natality: Refers to the number of births during a given period in the population that are added to the initial density.
● Mortality: Number of deaths in the population during a given period.
● Immigration: Number of individuals of the same species that have come into the habitat from elsewhere
during the time period under consideration.
● Emigration: Number of individuals of the population who left the habitat and gone elsewhere during
the time period under consideration.

3.1.4. Survivorship Curve

There are three general types of survivorship curves.
● Type I: Characterized by high survival in early and
middle life, followed a rapid decline in survivorship
in later life.
● Type II: Intermediate between Type I and III, where
roughly constant mortality rate is experienced
regardless of age.
● Type III: Greatest mortality is experienced early on
in life, with relatively low rates of death for those
surviving this bottleneck. Characteristics of species
that produce a large number of offspring.

3.1.5. Growth Pattern Figure.2. Survivorship curve

Exponential Growth (r-Adapted Growth)

● Under ideal conditions, populations of most species can grow at exponential rates.
● There is no competition to place limits on a geometric rate of growth.
● The population starts out growing slowly. As population size increases, the growth rate also increases,

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resulting in an exponential
(J-shaped) curve.
● Can be seen in populations that
are very small or in regions that
are newly colonized by a species.
● If a population of size N and
birth rate be represented as b,
death rate as d, then the rate of
change of N can be given by the
equation:
dN/dt = rN, where r = intrinsic
rate of natural increase
Figure.3. Growth pattern Logistical
Growth (K-Adapted Growth)
● Occur when population numbers begin to approach a finite carrying capacity.
● Carrying capacity (K) defines the limit of the resources beyond which they cannot support any number of organisms.
● A population growing in a habitat with limited resources shows initially a lag phase, followed by phases of
acceleration and deceleration and finally an asymptote.
● This is known as Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth and is represented using theequation:
dN/dt = rN((K-N) /K)

3.1.6. Population Stabilization

● The inherent tendency of the population is to increase in number.
● But this increase in number is not infinite since the carrying capacity of the environment always imposes a
restriction upon it.
● Population is regulated by two factors: Density independent factors and Density dependent factors.
Density Independent Factors
● The extrinsic factors are density independent factors. They are not connected with population density.
Example: food, space, shelter, weather, etc.

Density Dependent Factors

● They are intrinsic factors and arise within the population.
● They are connected with the population and include competition, predation, emigration, reproductivity,
diseases, etc.

3.2. Community
3.2.1. Characteristics of a Community
3.2.1.1. Species Diversity
● Species diversity is a product of richness and evenness; it is species richness weighted by species evenness.
● Species richness is the number of species in a community and the distribution of individuals among the
species is called species evenness.
● Whittaker (1965) described three types of diversity:
D α-index diversity (diversity within one community,
D β-index diversity (diversity between communities), and
D γ-index diversity (diversity in the ranges of communities).
Diversity Indices

● A diversity index is a mathematical measure of species diversity in a community.

● It is a measure of the number of species in an area and the relative abundance of individuals among those
species.

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● Species diversity is calculated by various methods such as:

D Simpson’s index
D Shannon Leaver index
D Odum’s species per thousand individuals
D Kothe’s deficit index
3.2.1.2. Dominance
● A community has many species, of which one or few species play a dominant role in the community by virtue
of their number, size and activities.
● Species structure in most communities is either abundant or rare.
3.2.1.3. Ecological Niche
● Ecological niche is defined as the role or function of species it plays in its ecosystem.
● In the ecological complex, different plants and animals of different species differ in their function and their
combined interactions with other species in its environment.
● It can also be defined as the small habitat of single species within a large habitat in which it survives.
3.2.1.4. Ecotone and Edge-effect
● An area or zone of transition between two or more diverse communities is known as an ecotone. Changes in
the physical environment create ecotones.
● Example: Between forest and grassland or between a soft-bottom and a hard-bottom marine substrate.
● The ecotonal community commonly contains many of the organisms of each of the overlapping communities
in addition to organisms characteristic of and often restricted to ecotones.
● The tendency for increased variety and density of species at community junctions is known as the edge
effect.
● The edge effect is thus, along the boundary line, an area displaying a greater than usual diversity of species.
● Species that use edges for the purpose of reproduction or survival are frequently termed as edge species.
3.2.1.5. Keystone Species
● A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its abundance.
● An ecosystem may experience a dramatic shift if a keystone species is removed, even though that species was
a small part of the ecosystem by measures of biomass or productivity.
● Their very presence contributes to a diversity of life and their extinction would consequently lead to the
extinction of other forms of life.
● Example: Birds called Blue Jays (Cyanocitta cristata), disperse seeds that give rise to oak forests. Without Blue
Jays, oak forests are not naturally replenished and without the forests, all other species in the ecosystem
cannot survive.
3.2.1.6. Interspecific Interactions in a Community
● Populations of two species may interact in basic ways that correspond to combinations of neutral, positive,
and negative (0, +, and -) as follows: 00, - -, + +, + 0, - 0, and + -.
● Three of these combinations (+ +, - -, and + -) are commonly subdivided, resulting in nine important
interactions and relationships.

D Neutralism, in which neither population is affected by association with the other;

D Competition, direct interference type, in which both populations actively inhibit each other;
D Competition, resource use type, in which each population adversely affects the other indirectly in the
struggle for resources in short supply;
D Amensalism, in which one population is inhibited and the other not affected;
D Commensalism, in which one population is benefited, but the other is not affected;

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D Parasitism; and Predation, in

which one population adversely
affects the other by direct attack
but nevertheless depends on the
other;
D Protocooperation, in which
both populations benefit by the
association but their relations are
not obligatory; and
D Mutualism, in which the growth
and survival of both populations
is benefited, and neither can
survive under natural conditions
without the other.

Symbiosis
● An interaction characterized by two
or more species living purposefully in Figure.4. Interspecific Interactions in a Community
direct contact with each other.
● Example: Symbiosis in lichens (combination of a fungal partner (mycobiont) and an algal partner (phycobiont).
● Three major types: mutualism, commensalism and parasitism.
Mutualism
● Mutualism can be either obligate or facultative.
● Species involved in obligate mutualism cannot survive without the relationship. Example: leafcutter ants
and certain fungi have an obligate mutualistic relationship.
● Facultative mutualistic species can survive individually when separated but often not as well. Example:
relationship between mycorrhizal fungi and plant roots.
Commensalism
● Commensalism can be difficult to identify because the individual that gets benefit may have indirect effects
on the other individual that are not readily noticeable or detectable.
● Example: Epiphytes widely found in tropical rainforests grow on the branches of trees in order to access light,
but the presence of them does not affect the trees.

Parasitism
● Parasitism is a good example of how species interactions are integrated.
● Parasites typically do not kill their hosts, but can significantly weaken them.
● Example: trematode that parasitizes certain aquatic snails.
3.2.1.7. Energy flow in a Community
● Through the series of steps of eating and being eaten, energy flows from one trophic level to another.
● Green plants or other photosynthesizing organisms use light energy from the Sun to manufacture
carbohydrates for their own needs.
● This stored energy is transferred to the second trophic level, which comprises grazing herbivores,
decomposers, and detritus feeders.

D Detritivore is a heterotrophic organism, which obtains its nutrition by feeding on detritus, i.e., decomposing
plant and animal parts. Example: beetles, butterflies, earthworms, millipedes, woodlice, etc.

● Most of the energy assimilated at the second trophic level is again lost as heat in respiration, as energy used
for movement, and energy is lost as waste.
● Organisms in each trophic level pass much less energy than they receive as biomass.
● The decomposers break down the bodies of the animals and plants when they die, releasing and utilizing much
of the energy stored within them.
● In general, the more steps between producer and final consumer, the less energy remains available.

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● Eventually, all energy flowing through the trophic levels is dissipated as heat. The process whereby energy
loses its capacity to do useful work is called entropy.

3.2.1.8. Ecological Succession

● Ecological succession is the process by which the structure of a biological community evolves over time.
● This can be caused by a number of factors, including changes in climate, the arrival of new species, or the
removal of a dominant species.
● Two different types of succession—primary and secondary.
Primary Succession

● Occurs in essentially lifeless areas—regions in which the soil is incapable of sustaining life as a result of such
factors as lava flows, newly formed sand dunes, or rocks left from a retreating glacier.

Secondary Succession

● Occurs in areas where a community that previously existed has been removed; it is typified by smaller-scale
disturbances that do not eliminate all life and nutrients from the environment.

Seral Stages and Climax Community

● The sequential progression of species during succession is known as sere or seral stages.
● At every seral stage certain species are present which can exploit the particular conditions of the community.
● One seral stage is replaced by another seral stage till a climax community (stable community) is established.
● These changes allow other species that are better suited to this modified habitat to succeed the old species.
Changes Occurring during Community Succession

Habitat conditions Changes from Hydrism or Xerism to Mesism

Soil Maturation of soil and development of soil profile.

Mineral cycles Open in the beginning. Closed later on.

Nutrients exchange amongst organisms, detritus and soil Poor initially. Later becomes important.

Biochemical diversity Low to high.

Community Simple short lived to complex long lived.

Changes rapidly in the beginning, more gradually later

Species composition
and then becomes almost stable.

Species diversity Increases in the beginning declines later on.

Increases in the beginning but declines later on to
Number of autotrophs
become stable.
Number of heterotrophs Increases to become stable

Total biomass Increases

Food chains Become complex and form food webs

Increases to stable level in the meadow stage, shows

Net primary productivity
linear progress again and later becomes stable.

Plant Succession

● Plant succession is an orderly process of community change in a unit area.

● The community passes through several developmental stages in a definite sequence from simple to complex.

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Types of Succession
Based on origin
● Primary succession: Formation of an ecosystem from bare rock, sand or clear glacial pool where previous life
does not exist.
● Secondary succession: Formation of a new ecosystem after the disturbance of an existing ecosystem.
D The succession progressing on such an area is also termed as subsere. The climax is reached very quickly
in the secondary succession.
D Causes of destruction of the previous community: landslides, earthquakes,volcanic eruption, fire, or cut
down by farmers for cultivation.
Based upon factors responsible for environment changes

● Autogenic succession: Organisms themselves bring change in the environment during succession.
● Allogenic succession: External environmental factors cause change in the environment during succession.
Example: application of nitrogenous fertilizers, which increases the growth of vegetation.

Based on habitat
● Hydrosere: when the succession starts in aquatic environments such as ponds, lakes, swamps, etc.
● Xerosere: the successional stages occur in the desert area or in dry habitats.
D Lithosere: succession occurs in the rocky area; and
D Psammosere: succession occurs in the sand.
● Halosere: succession starting on saline soil or water.
● Oxylosere: Succession on acidic soil

Hydrosere: 7 stages
● Phytoplankton stage
D Aquatic plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton) add large amounts of organic matter and nutri-
ents in water due to their various life activities.
D After their death, they settle at the bottom of the pond to form a layer of muck.
● Submerged Stage
D The developing layer on the bottom creates a substrate for rooted submerged hydrophytes such as Hydril-
la, Elodea, etc.
D These plants reproduce an increasing number and add organic matter after their death.
● Floating Stage
D Broad-leafed plants of floating type grow and provide shade, and due to the absence of light, algal growth
is reduced and ultimately eliminated.
D These broad leaves intercept more soil particles from the air, evaporate more water. Ultimately, water
height is reduced, and the pond becomes shallower.
● Reed Swamp Stage
D Vegetations are finally anchored in the bottom muck by spreading their fibrous roots and rhizomes.
D Shoots of the plants are partly entirely exposed to the air, and they intercept more soil particles, and the
water body silt up.
● Marsh Meadow Stage
D The remnant land of the open pond dries up in summer and freezes in winter.
D Drainage improves, the soil lies above the water, and organic matter exposed tothe air decomposes rapidly.
The meadow starts to grow there.
● Woodland Stage
D This stage is characterized by the plants that can tolerate water-logged soil around their roots.
D By this time, a mass accumulation of humus and mineralization of soil favors the new tree species.

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Figure.5. Stages in Hydrosere

● Climax
D Vegetation gets the ultimate shape in this stage. The vegetation may be of any type, depending upon pre-
vailing environmental conditions.

Xerosere: 6 Stages
● Crustose-lichen stage
D These are able to withstand extreme desiccation due to excessive dryness.
D During the rainy season they absorb large quantities of water and flourish rapidly.
D Crustose lichens produce some acids which bring about weathering of rocks.
D The organic matter of algae becomes mixed with the small particles of rocks to form the very thin layer of
soil on the rocks.
● Foliose-lichens Stage
D As soon as little soil is formed, higher forms of lichens (foliose-lichens) appear.
D They overlap the crustose-lichens and cause their gradual death and decay.
D More and more humus accumulates and gradually a thin layer of soil is formed.
D Associated with the lichens a few mites and then spiders make their appearance in cracks and crevices of
the rock.
● Mosses Stage
D The development of a thin humus-rich soil layer on the rock surface favors the growth of some xerophytic mosses.
D These mosses grow, compete with the lichens and add more organic matter to the soil after death and decay.
D The accumulated thick layer of soil retains a greater amount of water.
D It provides suitable habitat for the invasion of herbs, grasses, and ferns.

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Figure.6. Stages in Xerosere

● Herb Stage
D The weathering of rocks by physical, chemical, and biological means provides more soil and nutrients.
D Various bacteria and fungi decompose the accumulated organic matter.
D Certain larger herbs and grasses enter the community.

● Shrub Stage
D On the soil, thus prepared by lichens, mosses, and herbs, shrubs find favorable conditions for their growth.
D They over-sheds the herbaceous vegetation and produce more organic matter.

● Climax Stage/Vegetation
D With the establishment of shrubs, more and more soil is formed and the environment becomes increasingly
humid. This favours the growth of woody trees.
D In the beginning, trees show stunted growth and are sparsely placed. Then a climax forest community is
established.

3.3. Ecosystem
3.3.1. Components of the Ecosystem
Biotic Components
● Living components or factors that affect an ecosystem or other organisms living in that ecosystem.
● Divided into three categories: Autotrophs, Heterotrophs and Saprotrophs.
Autotrophs
● Derived from the two Greek words ‘auto’, meaning self, and ‘trophe’, meaning nutrition.
● An autotroph is an organism that can make its own food.
● They synthesize organic nutrients from inorganic materials, using energy from sunlight or a chemical source
to drive the process.
● Photolithoautotrophs: Plants, algae, cyanobacteria and some eubacteria that derive energy from light.
● Chemolithoautotrophs: Bacteria that utilize the oxidation of inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide
or ferrous iron as an energy source.

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Heterotrophs
● A heterotroph (Greek heteron = (an) other and trophe = nutrition) is an organism that requires organic
substrates to get its carbon for growth and development.
● All animals are heterotrophic, as well as fungi and many bacteria.
● Heterotrophs are unable to synthesize organic, carbon based compounds independently from the inorganic
environment’s sources.

Decomposers
● Decomposers are organisms (often fungi or bacteria) that break down organic materials to gain nutrients and energy.
● When an organism dies, it leaves behind nutrients that are locked tightly together.
● A scavenger may eat the carcass, but its feces still contains a considerable amount of unused energy and
nutrients.
● Decomposers such as fungi will later induce further breakdown. This last step releases raw nutrients in a form
usable to plants, which quickly incorporate the chemicals into their own cells.
● This process greatly increases the nutrient-load of an ecosystem, in turn allowing for greater biodiversity.
Abiotic Components
● Abiotic components are non living chemical and physical factors in the environment.
● Important Abiotic Components are 7 in number: Light, temperature, water, atmospheric gases, wind, soil
(edaphic) and physiographic (nature of land surface) factors.

Light
● Light energy (sunlight) is the primary source of energy in nearly all ecosystems.
● It is the energy that is used by green plants during the process of photosynthesis.
● Plants which grow well in bright sunlight are called heliophytes and plants which grow well in shady conditions
are known as sciophytes.
● Factors such as quality of light, intensity of light and the length of the light period (day length) play an important
part in an ecosystem.

Terms Related to Light

Phototropism
● Directional growth of plants in response to light where the direction of the stimulus determines the direction
of movement.

Phototaxis
● Movement of the whole organism in response to a unilateral light source, where the stimulus determines the
direction of movement.

Photokinesis
● Variation in intensity of locomotory activity of animals which is dependent on the intensity of light stimulation,
and not the direction.

Photonasty
● Movement of parts of a plant in response to a light source, but the direction of the stimulus does not determine
the direction of the movement of the plant.

Temperature
● The distribution of plants and animals is greatly influenced by extremes in temperature for instance the warm season.
● The occurrence or non-occurrence of frost is a particularly important determinant of plant distribution since
many plants cannot prevent their tissues from freezing or survive the freezing and thawing processes.

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Water

● Plant and animal habitats vary from entirely aquatic environments to very dry deserts.
● Plants can be classified into 3 groups according to their water requirements:
D Hydrophytes: plants which grow in water, e.g. water-lilies and rushes.
D Mesophytes: plants with average water requirements, e.g. roses, sweet peas.
D Xerophytes: plants which grow in dry environments where they often experience a shortage of water, e.g.
cacti and often succulents.
Atmospheric Gases
● The most important gases used by plants and animals are oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
Wind
● Winds or air currents arise on a world-wide scale as a result of a complex interaction between expanding and
rising hot air and the various effects of the rotation of the earth.
● Hot air rises mostly because of convection at the equator and at mid-latitudes.
● The earth’s rotation results in a centrifugal force at mid- latitudes. This force is known as the Coriolis force and
tends to deflect winds.
● Winds carry water vapour which may condense and fall in the form of rain, snow or hail.
● Wind plays a role in pollination and seed dispersal of some plants, as well as the dispersal of some animals,
such as insects.

Soil (edaphic factors)

● These factors include soil texture, soil air, soil temperature, soil water, soil solution and pH, together with soil
organisms and decaying matter.

Physiographic factors
● These factors are those associated with the physical nature of the area, such as altitude, slope of land and the
position of the area in relation to the sun or rain-bearing winds.

3.3.2. Types of the Ecosystem

Aquatic Ecosystem
● All such ecosystems that are primarily located on or inside water bodies.
● Sub-divided into: Freshwater Ecosystem and Marine Ecosystem.
Terrestrial Ecosystem
● All such ecosystems which are mainly located on land.
● Sub-divided into: Forest, grassland, mountain and desert ecosystem.

3.3.3. Functions of Ecosystem

It means exchange of matter and energy between abiotic and biotic components.

Producer Level

● The fundamental source of energy in almost all ecosystems is energy from the sun.
● The energy of sunlight is used by the ecosystem’s autotrophic organisms.
● Autotrophs use the energy stored within the simple carbohydrates to produce the more complex organic
compounds.
● The autotrophic segment of the ecosystem is commonly referred to as the producer level.
● Organic matter generated by autotrophs directly or indirectly sustains heterotrophic organisms.

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Trophic Levels and Food Chain

● Together, the autotrophs and heterotrophs form various trophic (feeding) levels in the ecosystem:
D the producer level, composed of those organisms that make their own food;
D the primary-consumer level, composed of those organisms that feed on producers;
D the secondary-consumer level, composed of those organisms that feed on primary consumers; and so on.
● The movement of organic matter and energy from the producer level through various consumer levels makes
up a food chain.
● For example, a typical food chain in a grassland might be grass (producer) → mouse (primary consumer) →
snake (secondary consumer) → hawk (tertiary consumer).
● In the marine food chain, single-celled organisms called phytoplankton (including diatoms, Cyanobacteria, etc)
are the primary producers.
D Crustaceans are herbivorous animals which feed on diatoms and herrings are carnivorous animals which
feed on Crustaceans.
● In many cases the food chains of the ecosystem overlap and interconnect, forming a food web.
● The final link in all food chains is made up of decomposers, ie. those heterotrophs that break down dead
organisms and organic wastes.
● A food chain in which the primary consumer feeds on living plants is called a grazing pathway; and that in
which the primary consumer feeds on dead plant matter is known as a detritus pathway.
● Both pathways are important in accounting for the energy budget of the ecosystem.
Law of 10%
● As energy moves through the ecosystem, much of it is lost at each trophic level.
● For example, only about 10 percent of the energy stored in grass is incorporated into the body of a mouse that
eats the grass.
● The remaining 90 percent is stored in compounds that cannot be broken down by the mouse or is lost as heat
during the mouse’s metabolic processes.
● Energy losses of similar magnitude occur at every level of the food chain.
● Only a few food chains extend beyond five members, because the energy available at higher trophic levels is
too small to support further consumers.

Flow of Energy
● The flow of energy through the ecosystem drives the movement of nutrients within the ecosystem.
● Unlike energy, which is continuously lost from the ecosystem, nutrients are cycled through the ecosystem,
oscillating between the biotic and abiotic components in what are called biogeochemical cycles.
● Decomposers play a key role in many of these cycles, returning nutrients to the soil, water, or air, where they
can again be used by the biotic constituents of the ecosystem.

Ecological Pyramid
● An ecological pyramid (or trophic pyramid) is a concept related to ecosystem energetics.
● It is a graphical representation designed to show the biomass or productivity at each trophic level in a given
ecosystem.
● Biomass pyramids show the abundance or biomass of organisms at each trophic level, while productivity or
energy pyramids show the production or turnover in biomass.

3.3.4. Bioaccumulation in Food Chain

● Bioaccumulation occurs when toxins build up - or accumulate - in a food chain.
● The animals at the top of the food chain are affected most severely.

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Process of Bioaccumulation
● Small amounts of toxic substances - often pesticides or pollution from human activity - are absorbed by plants.
● These plants are eaten by primary consumers in low concentrations.
● The toxin cannot be excreted so when the primary consumers are eaten by secondary consumers all the toxin
is absorbed by the secondary consumers.
● This repeats as secondary consumers are eaten by higher level consumers.
● At each trophic level of the food chain, the toxins remain in the tissues of the animals - so the concentration of
toxin becomes most concentrated in the body tissues of the animals at the top of the food chain.

3.3.5. Ecological Pyramids

● Ecological pyramids were developed by Charles Elton (1927) and are, therefore, also called Eltonian pyramids.
● In a pyramid the various steps of a food chain are represented sequence wise
● An ecological pyramid can be upright, inverted or spindle shaped.
● There are three types of ecological pyramids: Pyramid of Numbers, Pyramid of Biomass and Pyramid of Energy.

Pyramid of Numbers

● It is a graphic representation of the number of individuals per unit area of various trophic levels stepwise with
producers at the base and carnivores at the top.
● In most cases, the pyramid of numbers is upright with members of successive higher trophic levels being less
than the previous one.
● The maximum number of individuals occurs at the producer level.
● The producers support comparatively fewer numbers of herbivores, the latter fewer number of primary
carnivores and so on. Top carnivores are very few in number.
● In a grassland, a larger number of grass plants or herbs support a fewer number of grasshoppers that support a
still smaller number of frogs, the latter still smaller number of snakes and the snakes very few peacocks or falcons.
● A similar case is found in a pond ecosystem where a large number of phytoplankton support a comparatively
smaller number of zooplanktons the latter fewer number of small-sized fIshes, the small-sized fishes become
food of still fewer larger-sized fishes or water birds.
● The number of pyramids in a higher trophic level is generally smaller than that of the lower trophic level
because the organisms of the higher trophic level are dependent for their food and energy on the organisms
of the lower trophic level.

Figure.7. Pyramid of numbers

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Pyramid of Biomass
● It is a graphic representation of biomass present sequence-
wise per/unit area of different trophic levels with producers
at the base and top carnivores kept at the tip.
● It is more accurate than the pyramid of numbers because
the pyramid of numbers does not take into consideration
the size of the individual.
● Maximum biomass occurs in producers. There is a
progressive reduction of biomass found in herbivores,
primary carnivores, secondary carnivores, etc.
● It is found that about 10-20% of the biomass is transferred
from lower trophic level to higher level.
● The rest is consumed in providing energy for giving heat,
overcoming entropy and performing various body activities. Figure.8. Upright pyramid of biomass for terrestrial
habitats
● Pyramid of biomass is upright for terrestrial habitats.
● Inverted or spindle-shaped pyramids are obtained in aquatic
habitats where the biomass of a trophic level depends upon
reproductive potential and longevity of its members.
● Thus the biomass of phytoplankton may be smaller than that
of zooplankton and that of the latter less than of primary
carnivores.
● However, if total biomass produced per unit time is
calculated, the pyramid of biomass shall always be
upright.

Pyramid of Energy
● It is a graphical representation of the amount of energy
trapped per unit time and area in different trophic levels of Figure.9. Inverted pyramid of biomass in an aquatic
a food chain. system Pyramid of Energy
● The energy content is expressed as Kcal/m2/year or KJ/m2/
year. Maximum energy content is present in producers.
● They obtain the energy from solar radiation. The energy is
converted in chemical form and stored inside organic matter
manufactured by the producers.
● As the energy passes into higher trophic level along with food,
its amount decreases because of its dissipation as heat and
used in overcoming entropy as well as for performing various
body activities.
Figure.10. Pyramid of energy in a fish pond
3.3.6. Ecosystem Productivity
● Productivity within an ecosystem can be defined as the percentage of energy entering the ecosystem
incorporated into biomass in a particular trophic level.
● Biomass is the total mass, in a unit area at the time of measurement, of living or previously living organisms
within a trophic level.
● The productivity of the primary producers is especially important in any ecosystem because these organisms
bring energy to other living organisms.
● The rate at which photosynthetic primary producers incorporate energy from the sun is called gross primary
productivity.

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● Net primary productivity is the energy that remains in the primary producers after accounting for the
organisms’ respiration and heat loss.
● The net productivity is then available to the primary consumers at the next trophic level.
Measuring Ocean Productivity
● Ocean productivity largely refers to the production of organic matter by phytoplankton.
● The total productivity of a region or system is the gross primary productivity. Some of this organic material is
used to sustain phytoplankton.
● The amount leftover is known as the net productivity, which is the amount of organic material available to
support the heterotrophs of the ocean.
● Net primary production is the gross primary production minus energy used for growth and development of
the plant.
● Primary productivity is calculated by measuring the uptake of CO2, or the output of oxygen.
● Production rates are expressed as grams of organic carbon per unit area per unit time.
Factors Affecting Ocean Productivity

Nutrient Availability
● Phytoplankton require relatively uniform amounts of Nitrogen and Phosphorus.
● The dissolved N:P ratio in the deep ocean is close to the 16:1 ratio of planktonbiomass.
● Iron is found in biomass in trace amounts, but it is used for essential purposes inorganisms.
● Scarcity often affects productivity in oceans, especially in regions of upwelling.

D Regions of upwelling are the most productive waters in the world.

● Although they occupy less than 2% of the oceans, they support high biodiversity and provide 20% of the
world’s fish harvest.

Light
● Sunlight is the energy source for phytoplankton. However, very little sunlight penetrates below a depth of 80m.
● Photosynthesis is restricted to the upper, light-penetrated part of the ocean - known as the photic zone.
● Also, sunlight causes surface water to be much warmer than underlying water.
● Warm water has a lower density than colder water, so it stays above it, creating a thermocline.
● The two layers experience limited mixing, restricting primary production to the warmer surface waters.

Seasonality
● In some temperate and subpolar regions, productivity reaches a maximum during the spring as the
phytoplankton transition from light to nutrient limitation.

3.4. Biomes
Factors affecting distribution of biomes

● Temperature and sunlight (angle of the sun and how the sun’s rays hit the earth affect heating of the planet)
● Water and precipitation (ranges from dry to wet areas)
● Wind patterns (affects temperature and water loss)
● Rocks and soil (pH, mineral content, salinity, etc.)

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Description of important biomes

Biomes Physical Characteristics Plants Animals
2 seasons, dry, frozen deserts. Winter: Extreme Insect blooms, large
cold and snow. Summer: flooding caused by hooved mammals
snow melt. Permafrost layer (permanently No trees, dominated by (caribou, musk ox),
1. Tundra Frozen, about 3m below ground). Location: far mosses and Lichens and bears, Wolves, small
North and far south – towards the polar ice grasses, some small shrubs rodents (lemmings),
caps. Average temperature: 10 degrees celsius Migrants during the
Rainfall: 25 cm/yr, Snow: 10 – 20 cm/yr breeding Season
Diverse array of
Long winter, short fall and spring, Trees 5 – 10 m high, migrants from the
tropics with few
2. Taiga/Bore al 2-3 months of summer, Wetter seasons, heavy Boreal forest, conifers resident species
Forest rain and snow. Location: coniferous forest, far – pine, spruce, bog plants (moose, bear, lynx,
northern and far Southern latitudes. (ferns and mosses) fox, voles), large
insect blooms
Diverse array of
3. Temperate 4 seasons, Complex levels of
migrants from the
Deciduous vegetation deciduous
Rainfall: 80-140 cm/yr tropics and resident
Forest trees, loose leaves in fall
species

Dry, rainfall: 90 – 150 cm/yr, Grasses, forbs, trees short

Large ungulates,
4. Savanna and (2m tall), Clumped
Location: tropical to subtropical, 3 seasons large predators
together (10 m tall)
Temperate and some subartic grassland
5. Temperate (extreme northern prairies – steppes and some
Grasses Large ungulates
Grassland extreme southern grasslands – Pampas of
Argentina) Rainfall: 25-70 cm/yr
Mild wet winter followed by hot, dry, summer
Diversity of
Many plant species rely on wildfires to renew soil. mammals, birds,
6. Chaparral Short trees and shrubs
Location: near coastlines (California, Chile) Insects, etc. That
like dry Habitats
Mediterranean type of climate
Very dry, rainfall: less than 25 cm/yr
Cactus, Sagebrush, Small rodents,
7. Desert Location: primarily equatorial but some reach
Creosote and shrubs reptiles
Into temperate regions

Very wet - heavy rainfall, soil - poor in nutrients, Large trees- broad-leaved
Temperature constant throughout the year evergreens, Epiphytes, not
8. Tropical Highest diversity of
much forest Floor vegetation
rainforest Wet and dry seasons, Location: equatorial, animals
(little sunlight).Canopy 30
23.5 degree N latitude, 23.5 degree S latitude - 40 m above ground
Aquatic Biome Freshwater and marine
1. Marine Various birds, large
Deep ocean, dependent on upwellings Algae
Pelagic Zone mammals, fish
2. Marine Detritus feeders,
Ocean floor, no light None
Benthic predatory fish
Where rivers flow into the ocean, mix of
3. Marine Aquatic vegetation, marsh
saltwater and freshwater, marshes rich in Rich variety
Estuaries plants
plants and animals
Marine worms,
4. Marine
Shoreline to shallow waters Algae clams, oysters,
Intertidal zone
crustaceans
5. Coral, reefs Tropical oceans Algae Coral, fish

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Figure.11. Biomes of the world

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3.5. Biosphere
● The biosphere is made up of the parts of Earth where life exists.
● Components of biosphere:
D Lithosphere (solid surface layer)
D Atmosphere (layer of air that stretches above the lithosphere)
D Hydrosphere (water—on the surface, in the ground, and in the air)
● Since life exists on the ground, in the air, and in the water, the biosphere overlaps all these spheres. It has
existed for about 3.5 billion years.
● The biosphere’s earliest life-forms, called prokaryotes, survived without oxygen.
● Some prokaryotes developed a unique chemical process. They were able to use sunlight to make simple sugars
and oxygen out of water and carbon dioxide, a process called photosynthesis.
● These photosynthetic organisms were so plentiful that they changed the biosphere.
● The addition of oxygen to the biosphere allowed more complex life-forms to evolve.
● Animals, which consume plants (and other animals) evolved. Bacteria and other organisms evolved to
decompose, or break down, dead animals and plants.
● The biosphere benefits from this food web. The remains of dead plants and animals release nutrients into the
soil and ocean. These nutrients are reabsorbed by growing plants.
● This exchange of food and energy makes the biosphere a self-supporting and self-regulating system.

3.6. Biogeochemical Cycles

● A biogeochemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a chemical element or molecule moves through both
biotic (“bio-”) and abiotic (“geo-”) compartments of an ecosystem.
● All the chemicals, nutrients, or elements—such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur , phosphorus—used in ecosystems
by living organisms operate on a closed system, which means that these chemicals are recycled.

3.6.1. Carbon Cycle

● A biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged between the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere of the Earth.
● Major reservoirs of carbon in the cycle are: atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere, oceans and sediments.
In the Atmosphere
● Carbon exists in the Earth’s atmosphere primarily as the gas carbon dioxide (CO2).
● Although it is a very small part of the atmosphere overall (approximately 0.037% on a molar basis and rising),
it plays an important role in supporting life.
● Other gases containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons.
Carbon is taken from the atmosphere in several ways
● When plants perform photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, releasing oxygen in the
process.
● At the surface of the oceans towards the poles, seawater becomes cooler and CO2 is more soluble. This is
coupled with the ocean’s thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean’s
interior.
● In upper ocean areas of high productivity, organisms form tissue containing reduced carbon, and some also
form carbonate shells, tests, or other hard body parts.
● These are, respectively, oxidized (soft-tissue pump) and redissolved (carbonate pump) at lower average levels
of the ocean than those at which they formed, resulting in a downward flow of carbon.

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Carbon can be released back into the atmosphere in many different ways
● Through the respiration performed by plants and animals.
● Through the decay of animal and plant matter.
● Through combustion of organic material which oxidizes the carbon it contains, producing carbon dioxide (as
well as other things, like smoke).
● Production of cement: lime, is produced by heating limestone, which produces a substantial amount of carbon
dioxide.
● At the surface of the oceans where the water becomes warmer, dissolved carbon dioxide is released back into
the atmosphere
● Volcanic eruptions and metamorphism release gases into the atmosphere. These gases include water vapor,
carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.

In the Biosphere
● Carbon is transferred within the biosphere as heterotrophs feed on other organisms or their parts (e.g., fruits).
● Most carbon leaves the biosphere through respiration. When oxygen is present, aerobic respiration occurs,
which releases carbon dioxide into the surrounding air or water, following the reaction:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
● Otherwise, anaerobic respiration occurs and releases methane into the surrounding environment, which
eventually makes its way into the atmosphere or hydrosphere.
● Burning of biomass can also transfer substantial amounts of carbon to the atmosphere
● Carbon may also be circulated within the biosphere when dead organic matter becomes incorporated in the geosphere.

Figure.12. Carbon Cycle

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In the Ocean
● The sea contains carbon mostly in the form of bicarbonate ions.
● Inorganic carbon, that is carbon compounds with no carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds, is important
in its reactions within water.
● This carbon exchange becomes important in controlling pH in the ocean and can also vary as a source or sink
for carbon.
● Carbon is readily exchanged between the atmosphere and ocean. In regions of oceanic upwelling, carbon is
released in the atmosphere.
● Conversely, regions of downwelling, transfer carbon (CO2) from the atmosphere to the ocean.
● When CO2 enters the ocean, carbonic acid is formed:
CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3
Human Impact
● Felling of forests, coal-burning power plants, automobile exhausts, factory smokestacks,and other waste vents
of the human environment contribute billions of tons of carbon dioxide into the earth’s atmosphere. This alters
the Carbon Cycle drastically.
● The atmospheric concentration of CO2 has reached around 417ppm – a 50% increase over the 1750-1800
average. Pre-industrial levels were about 278ppm.
● This imbalance in the Carbon cycle is responsible for phenomena like greenhouse effect, global warming and
climate change.

3.6.2. Nitrogen Cycle

● The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformations of nitrogen and nitrogen-
containing compounds in nature.

Parts of the Cycle

● Earth’s atmosphere is about 79% nitrogen, making it the largest pool of nitrogen.
● However, N2 is unavailable for use by most organisms because there is a triple bond between the two nitrogen
atoms, making the molecule almost inert.
● In order for nitrogen to be used for growth it must be “fixed” (combined) in the form of ammonium (NH4) or
nitrate (NO3) ions.
● Six processes participate in the cycling of nitrogen through the biosphere: nitrogen fixation, decay, nitrification,
denitrification, anammox and, leaching and weathering of rocks.

Nitrogen Fixation
● Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen is taken from its relatively inert molecular form (N2) in the
atmosphere and converted into nitrogen compounds useful for other chemical processes (such as, notably,
ammonia, nitrate and nitrogen dioxide).
Three processes of nitrogen fixation in the biosphere:

Atmospheric fixation by Lightning

● Lightning breaks nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air forming
nitrogen oxides.
● These dissolve in rain, forming nitrates, which are carried to the earth.
● Atmospheric nitrogen fixation probably contributes some 5% of the total nitrogen fixed.
Biological Fixation
● Nitrogen fixation is performed biologically by a number of different prokaryotes, including bacteria, and
actinobacteria.
● Biological nitrogen fixation requires a complex set of enzymes and a huge expenditure of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate).

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● The most fundamental enzyme required for nitrogen fixation is Nitrogenase, which is present only in the
diazotrophic (nitrogen fixing) bacteria.
● Important diazotrophs are:
1. Cyanobacteria: Anabaena, Nostoc, Gloeotheca, Calothrix
2. Others: Azotobacter, Azomonas, Agrobacterium,

● Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers: Non Leguminous Host

1. Frankia: Wide range of tree species
2. Acetobacter: Sugar cane
3. Nostoc: the Hornwort Anthoceros
4. Anabaena: the Fern Azolla

● Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers: Leguminous or some closely related Host

D By 5 genera of closely related diazotrophs: Rhizobium, Azorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Photo Rhizobium,
Sinorhizobium.
● Plants that contribute to nitrogen fixation include the legume family – Fabaceae – with taxa such as clover,
chickpea, soybeans, alfalfa, lupins, peanuts, and rooibos.

Industrial fixation by Haber and Bosch Process

● Under great pressure, at a temperature of 600°C, and with the use of a catalyst, atmospheric nitrogen and
hydrogen can be combined to form ammonia (NH3).
● Ammonia can be used directly as fertilizer, but most of it is further processed to urea and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).
● Industrial nitrogen fixation probably contributes some 20% of the total nitrogen fixed.
Decay
● Decay (also called Ammonification
or Mineralization) is carried out by a
number of microbes and some fungi.
● The proteins made by plants enter
and pass through food webs just as
carbohydrates do.
● At each trophic level, their metabolism
produces organic nitrogen compounds
that return to the environment, chiefly
in excretions and also as a part of the
dead remains of the organism.
● The final beneficiaries of these
materials are microorganisms
of decay. They break down the
molecules in excretions and dead
organisms into ammonia. Figure.13. Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrification
● Ammonia can be taken up directly by plants — usually through their roots. However, most of the ammonia
produced by decay is converted into nitrates.
● This is accomplished in two steps:
D Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus oxidize NH3 to nitrites (NO2−).
D Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the nitrites to nitrates (NO3−).
● These two groups or autotrophic bacteria are called nitrifying bacteria.

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Denitrification
● Denitrification reduces nitrates to nitrogen gas, thus replenishing the atmosphere.
● Once again, bacteria are the agents, for example Thiobacillus denitrificans, Bacillus denitrificans
Anammox
● In this biological process, nitrite and ammonium are converted directly into dinitrogen gas.
● This process makes up a major proportion of dinitrogen conversion in the oceans. The overall catabolic reaction is:
NH4+ + NO2- → N2 + 2H2O.
Leaching and Weathering of Rocks
● A small amount of Nitrate is leached down to ground water deposits causing pollution. The situation is
aggravated by indiscriminate use of nitrogen fertilizers.
● Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts with hemoglobin and forms nonfunctional methaemoglobin that impairs
oxygen transport. This is called Methemoglobinemia or Blue-baby syndrome.
● The weathering of rocks releases fixed nitrogen ions into the soil but the process is so slow that it has a
negligible effect on the availability of fixed nitrogen.

Human Impact on the Cycle

● Humans have contributed significantly to the nitrogen cycle by artificial nitrogen fertilization and planting of
nitrogen fixing crops.
● In addition, humans have significantly contributed to the transfer of nitrogen trace gases from Earth to the atmosphere.
● N2O has risen in the atmosphere as a result of agricultural fertilization, biomass burning, cattle and feedlots,
and other industrial sources.
● N2O breaks down in the stratosphere and acts as a catalyst in the destruction of atmospheric ozone.
● NH3 in the atmosphere has tripled as the result of human activities. It is a reactant in the atmosphere, where
it acts as an aerosol and decreases air quality.
● NO actively alters atmospheric chemistry, and is a precursor of tropospheric (lower atmosphere) ozone
production, which contributes to smog, acid rain, and increases nitrogen inputs to ecosystems.

Algal bloom
● An algal bloom is a rapid increase in the density of algae in an aquatic system.
● Algae can multiply quickly in waterways with an overabundance of nitrogen and phosphorus, particularly when
the water is warm and the weather is calm.
● Algal blooms can create dead zones beneath them. They prevent light from penetrating the water’s surface.
● They also prevent oxygen from being absorbed by organisms beneath them.

3.6.3. Phosphorus Cycle

● It is the biogeochemical cycle that describes
the transformation and translocation of
phosphorus in soil, water, and living and
dead organic material.
● Phosphorus is a major constituent of
biological membranes and nucleic acids.
● It is a key player in fundamental biochemical
reactions involving genetic material (DNA,
RNA) and energy transfer (ATP).
● Many animals also need large quantities of
this element to make shells, bones and teeth.
● The natural reservoir of phosphorus is
rock, which contains phosphorus in the
form of phosphates. Figure.14. Phosphorus cycle

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● When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of these phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed by
the roots of the plants.
● Herbivores and other animals obtain this element from plants.
● Unlike the carbon cycle, there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into the atmosphere.
Four Major Components
● Tectonic uplift and exposure of phosphorus-bearing rocks to the forces of weathering.
● Physical erosion and chemical weathering of rocks producing soils and providing dissolved and particulate
phosphorus to rivers.
● Riverine transport of phosphorus to lakes and the ocean.
● Sedimentation of phosphorus associated with organic and mineral matter and burial in sediments.

Steps Involved in Phosphorus Cycle

Weathering
● The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains phosphorus in the form of phosphates.
● When it rains, phosphates are removed from the rocks (via weathering) and are distributed throughout both
soils and water.
● Different microorganisms like Actinomycetes, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Aspergillus, Penicillium, etc. are involved
in the solubilization of phosphorus in the soil.
● Natural processes like volcanic activity and asteroid activity also aid in the release of phosphorus into the soil.
Absorption by Plants
● Plants absorb phosphate salts that have been dissolved in water.
● They can either take up phosphorus directly from the soil, or can be made available to plants by different
symbiotic microorganisms.
● The aquatic plants in oceans also absorb phosphorus from the lower layers of aquatic sediments.
Movement of Phosphorus in the Food Chain
● The phosphates then move from plants to animals when herbivores eat plants and carnivores eat plants or herbivores.
● The phosphorus transferred to the consumers is used for the formation of biomolecules like the nucleotides
and connective tissues like bones.

Return of Phosphorus to the Ecosystem

● The phosphates absorbed by animal tissue eventually return to the soil through the excretion, as well as from
the final decomposition of plants and animals after death.
● In this step, the organic forms of phosphorus are converted into their inorganic forms by the process of mineralization.
● The phosphorus in the soil is also transported to the ocean during rainfall or by the running off of soil to the
water bodies.
● The phosphorus in the ocean undergoes deposition, forming layers of sediments.
● The sediment formation leads to the formation of rocks and the cycle continues.
Human Impacts on the Phosphorus Cycle
● Humans can alter the phosphorus cycle in many ways, including in the cutting of tropical rainforests and
through the use of agricultural fertilizers.
● As the forest is cut or burned, nutrients originally stored in plants and rocks are quickly washed away by heavy
rains, causing the land to become unproductive.
● Agricultural runoff provides much of the phosphate found in waterways.
● Crops often cannot absorb all of the fertilizer in the soils, causing excess fertilizer runoff and increasing
phosphate levels in rivers and other bodies of water.

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3.6.4. Sulphur Cycle

Figure.15. Sulphur Cycle

● It describes the movement of sulfur through the atmosphere, mineral forms, and through living things.
● Most of the earth’s sulphur is tied up in rocks and salts or buried deep in the ocean in oceanic sediments.
Steps Involved in Sulphur Cycle
Weathering
● Sulfur is released from geologic sources through the weathering of rocks. Once sulfur is exposed to the air, it
combines with oxygen, and becomes sulfate (SO4).
Sulphur Assimilation
● Plants and microbes assimilate sulfate and convert it into organic forms.
● As animals consume plants, the sulfur is moved through the food chain and released when organisms die and decompose.
● Some bacteria – for example Proteus, Campylobacter, Pseudomonas and Salmonella – have the ability to
reduce sulfur.
● These bacteria get their energy by reducing elemental sulfur to hydrogen sulfide. This process is known as
dissimilatory sulfate reduction.
In the Atmosphere
● Sulphur enters the atmosphere through both natural and human sources.
● Natural sources include volcanic eruptions, bacterial processes, evaporation from water, or decaying organisms.
● Sulphur enters the atmosphere through human activity mainly as a consequence of industrial processes where
sulphur dioxide (SO2) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gases are emitted on a wide scale.
● When sulphur dioxide enters the atmosphere it reacts with oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide gas (SO3), or
with other chemicals in the atmosphere, to produce sulphur salts.
● Sulphur dioxide may also react with water to produce sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
D Sulphuric acid may also be produced from dimethyl sulphide, which is emitted to the atmosphere by plankton species.
● All these particles will settle back onto earth, or react with rain and fall back onto earth as acid deposition.

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