RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

MODULE 2

Solar Energy:Fundamentals; Solar Radiation; Estimation of solar radiation on horizontal and

inclined surfaces; Solar radiation Measurements- Pyrheliometers, Pyrometer, Sunshine
Recorder.Solar Thermal systems: Flat plate collector; Solar distillation; Solar pond electric
power plant.

Solar electric power generation- Principle of Solar cell, Photovoltaic system for electric
power generation, advantages, Disadvantages and applications of solar photovoltaic system.

Solar Energy
Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun, particularly electromagnetic energy.
Solar radiation helps sustain life and affects climate changes. Solar radiation comes in many
forms, such as visible light, radio waves, heat (infrared), x-rays, gamma rays and ultraviolet
rays. Only the portion of the spectrum that includes Ultraviolet rays, Visible light, infrared
rays reaches the earth's surface as shown in the Fig

Measurements for solar radiation are higher on clear, sunny days and usually low on cloudy
days.In case of Sun being down, or when there are heavy clouds blocking the sun, solar
radiation is measured at zero. Energy from the Sun can be tapped and used for various
applications like cooking, water heating, lighting, in power plants, and much more.

SOLAR RADIATION AT THE EARTH'S SURFACE

From the point of view of utilisation of solar energy we are more interested in the energy
received at the earth's surface Solar radiation received at the surface of the earth is entirely
different due to various reasons.
The solar radiation that penetrates the earth's atmosphere and reaches the surface differs in
both amount and character from the radiation at the top of the atmosphere.
In the first place, part of the radiation is reflected back into space, especially by clouds.
Furthermore, the radiation entering the atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules in the air.
Oxygen and ozone (O3), formed from oxygen, absorb nearly all the ultraviolet radiation.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

Water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb some of the energy in the infrared range. In addition,
part of the solar radiation is scattered (i.e., its direction has been changed) by droplets in
clouds, by atmospheric molecules, and by dust particles.

Beam radiation:
Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly from
the sun is called "direct radiation" or Beam radiation.

Diffuse radiation:
It is solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has been changed by reflection
and scattering by the atmosphere. Because the solar radiation is scattered in all directions in
the atmosphere, diffuse radiation comes to the earth from all parts of the sky.

Global Radiation:
The sum of the beam and diffuse radiation flux is referred to as total or global radiation. It is
also called total radiation.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

Irradiance:
The rate at which radiant energy is incident per unit area of the surface. The unit of Irradiance
2
is W/m . It is used for beam and diffused radiation.

MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION

• Sunshine recorder,
• Pyrheliometer
• Pyrometer
• Pyranometer.

Pyranometer:
A pyranometer is designed to measure global radiation, usually on a horizontal surface, but
can also be used on an inclined surface.When shaded from beam radiation by using a shading
ring, a pyranometer measures diffused radiation

Construction
It contains a thermopile whose sensitive surface consists of circular, blackened, hot junctions,
exposed to the sun, the cold junctions being completely shaded. The temperature difference

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

between the hot and cold junctions is the function of radiation falling on the sensitive surface.
The sensing element is covered by two concentric hemispherical glass domes to shield it from
wind and rain which also reduces the convection currents. A radiation shield surrounding the
outer dome and coplanar with the sensing element, prevents direct solar radiation from
heating the base of the instrument.

Working:
When the pyranometer is exposed to sun, it starts receiving the radiations. As a result, the
surface temperature starts rising due to absorption of the radiation. The increase in the
temperature of the absorbing surface is detected by the thermopile. The thermopile generates
a thermo emf which is proportional to the radiations absorbed; this thermo emf is calibrated
in terms of the received radiations. This will measure the global solar radiations.

Sunshine recorder
The amount of shineshine is measured in hours using sunshine recorder
Construction
It consists of a glass sphere of about 100 mm diameter. It is mounted concentrically
in Spherical bowl with grooves.The sphere acts as a lens and focuses the sun‟s image along a
special thermal sensitive paper/card strip marked with a time scale.

Card strip is held in a groove in a spherical bowl mounted concentrically with the
sphere. Whenever there is bright sunshine (When the radiation intensity is above 200
W/m2), the image formed on the card strip and this image formed is intense enough to create
a burnt impression on the paper.

Working
As the sun moves a burnt image is created along the paper strip indicating the bright sun
shine periods along the strip. The length of the trace thus obtained on the paper is the
measure of the duration of the bright sunshine. Three overlapping pairs of grooves are
provided in the spherical segment to take care of the different seasons of the year.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

Pyrheliometers
Pyrheliometers measure 'direct solar radiation„, the amount of solar energy per unit area per
unit time incident on a plane normal to the position of the sun in the sky, coming directly
from the sun itself.

Construction:
The instrument consists of a tube whose axis is aligned with the direction of sun's rays by
using two axis tracking mechanism and alignment indicator. The tube contains a sensor disc
at its base and the arrangement is made such that the diffuse radiation is blocked from the
sensor surface and hence the device measures only Beam radiation

Working
Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed onto a thermopile which
converts heat to an electrical signal that can be recorded. The signal voltage is converted via
formula to measure watts per square metre.

Flat Plate Collector

Construction:
The Liquid Flat plat collector consist of a absorber plate made up of copper & is black coated
to absorb solar rays.
Beneath this plate are copper tubes which are in thermal contact with it.Insulation is provided
surrounding the tubes to avoid thermal losses. Within the tubes water is circulated which acts
as heat transporter. The transparent glass made up 4mm thick allows the solar absorber to hit
the absorber plate which act as opaque to the infrared radiation reflected from the absorber.
Working
When the sun rises, its energy passes through the transparent cover and fall on the absorber
plate. The heat energy absorbed by the absorber plate is transferred to the cold water flowing

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

through the tubes. The heated water being lighter rises and flows into the top of the solar
water heater tank, can be used for various purposes. Now cold water from the overhead tank
enters the water tubes and process repeats. Applications of flat plate collector: water heating,
cooking, drying of food grains, heating and cooling of buildings

Advantages Of Flat Plate Collector

1. Easy To Manufacture
The flat plate collector is a simple design and can be easily manufactured.
2. Low Cost
The flat panel heat exchanger system is quite cheap and easy to install compared with a
conventional solar systems that cost more and takes more time for installation also making it
difficult for homeowners to install them themselves.
3. Simple And Easy To Operate.
The flat plate collectors are very easy to operate because they don‟t have complex parts
inside the panels. In addition, without any electric elements, flat plate collectors are also
simple to install and can be easily operated by only one person.

Disadvantages Of Flat Plate Collector

1. Unstable Performance
Unlike other solar panels, the performance of flat plate collectors is very unstable, affecting
their energy output. The performance of FPCs has been found to be affected by many factors
like weather conditions, geographical location and local climatic conditions.
2. Insufficient Storage
As the FPC is only designed to produce a limited amount of thermal energy, its storage
capacity is also significantly less than that of other solar thermal systems.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

Applications
• A FPC can also be used to heat ground water or other underground medium.
• Any commercial buildings or homes use flat plate collectors in the office spaces,
restaurants, schools, and apartment buildings for air conditioning or heating purposes
by connecting them directly to the building‟s HVAC systems.
• They are also used in food processing plants where they can be used for drying fruits
and vegetables.

Solar ponds

A solar pond is simply a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal energy.
The saltwater naturally forms a vertical salinity gradient also known as a “halocline", in
which low-salinity water floats on top of high-salinity water. The layers of salt solutions
increase in concentration (and therefore density) with depth. Below a certain depth, the
solution has a uniformly high salt concentration.
When the sun's rays contact the bottom of a shallow pool, they heat the water adjacent to the
bottom. When water at the bottom of the pool is heated, it becomes less dense than the cooler
water above it, and convection begins. Solar ponds heat water by impeding this convection.
Salt is added to the water until the lower layers of water become completely saturated.
High-salinity water at the bottom of the pond does not mix readily with the low-salinity water
above it, so when the bottom layer of water is heated, convection occurs separately in the
bottom and top layers, with only mild mixing between the two. This greatly reduces heat loss,
and allows for the high-salinity water to get up to 90 °C while maintaining 30 °C low-salinity
water.
When the sun's rays contact the bottom of a shallow pool, they heat the water adjacent to the
bottom. When water at the bottom of the pool is heated, it becomes less dense than the cooler
water above it, and convection begins. Solar ponds heat water by impeding this convection.
Salt is added to the water until the lower layers of water become completely saturated. High-
salinity water at the bottom of the pond does not mix readily with the low-salinity water
above it, so when the bottom layer of water is heated, convection occurs separately in the

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

bottom and top layers, with only mild mixing between the two. This greatly reduces heat loss,
and allows for the high-salinity water to get up to 90 °C while maintaining 30 °C low-salinity
water.

This hot, salty water can then be pumped away for use in electricity generation, often through
a turbine of some sort.The energy obtained is in the form of low-grade heat of 70 to 80 °C
compared to an assumed 20 °C ambient temperature with efficiency of 17%.

Advantages of solar pond

Produces clean, renewable energy

Low maintenance costs

Works day and night

Reduces electricity bills

Disadvantages of solar pond

Requires large land area

Low efficiency rates

High initial investment

Maintenance can be challenging

Solar distillation

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

In many small communities, the natural supply of fresh water is inadequate in comparison to
the availability of brackish or saline water. Solar distillation can prove to be an effective way
of supplying drinking water to such communitiesThe principle of solar distillation is simple
and can be explained with reference to Fig., in which a conventional basin-type solar still is
shown. The still consists of a shallow air-tight basin lined with a black, impervious material
which contains the saline water.
A sloping transparent cover is provided at the top. Solar radiation is transmitted through the
cover and is absorbed in the black lining. It thus heats up the water by about 10° to 20°C and
causes it to evaporate. The resulting vapor rises, condenses as pure water on the underside of
the cover and flows into condensate collection channels on the sides. An output of about 3
litres/m2 with an associated efficiency of 30 to 35 per cent can be obtained in a well-designed
still on a good sunny day.

Advantages of solar distillation

• Produces pure water
• No prime movers required
• No conventional energy required
• No skilled operator required
• Local manufacturing/ repairing
• Low investment
• Can purify highly saline water

Disadvantages of solar distillation

• Accumulation of salt on the bottom, which need to be removed periodically
• Cracking, breakage or scratches on the glass which reduce solar transmission
• Growth of algae, deposition of dust etc. To avoid this still need to be cleaned regularly
every few days
• Poor fitting and joints which increase colder air flow from outside into the still

Application

Pyrometer

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

A pyrometer is a non-contacting device to measure the thermal radiation from the object to
measure the surface temperature.
Types of Pyrometer
• The pyrometer can be classified into mainly two types based on it‟s working principle,
• ⇒ Optical Pyrometer
• ⇒ Infrared/Radiation Pyrometer

Optical Pyrometer
Optical Pyrometers work on the basic principle of using the human eye to match the
brightness of the hot object to the brightness of a calibrated lamp filament inside the
instrument. The optical system contains filters that restrict the wavelength-sensitivity of the
devices to a narrow wavelength band around 0.65 to 0.66 microns (the red region of the
visible

m).

Parts of Optical Pyrometer.

⇒ An eyepiece or observer is on the left side and an optical lens on the right side.
⇒ A lamp that generates reference temperature using a power source and rheostat.
⇒ An ampere meter to measure the current to calculate the temperature.
⇒ An absorption screen is installed between the lens and a reference lamp.
⇒ A red filter between the reference lamp and eyepiece or observer.

Any object whose temperature is absolute zero emits or generates radiation. This emission
depends on the temperature of the object.
An optical pyrometer uses this radiation to measure the temperature of the object. The
brightness of the measured object is compared with the brightness of the lamp at a reference

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

temperature.The reference temperature is produced by the lamp whose brightness can be

adjusted using rheostat as shown in the above figure.

Working
Any object whose temperature is absolute zero emits or generates radiation. This emission
depends on the temperature of the object.The radiation from the source is captured by the
optical lens. The lens helps in focusing the thermal radiation on the lamp.The observer starts
observing the brightness of the lamp filament. The filament of the reference lamp is
superimposed on the temperature of the source. The observer starts changing the rheostat
value.
There may be three possibilities, such as
A. When the filament is “DARK“. Then the source object is hotter than the reference
temperature or we can say that the filament temperature is cooler than the source temperature.
B. When the filament is “BRIGHT“. Then the source object is cooler than the reference
temperature or we can say that the filament temperature is hotter than the source temperature.
C. When the filament “DISAPPEARS“. So we can say that the temperature of the source
object and reference temperature is the same.
At this time current can be measured to calculate the temperature.

Advantages of optical pyrometer

• Assembly is simple and portable.
• Provides a very high accuracy with the tolerance of ±5 ºC.
• No need to be in direct contact with the object whose temperature is being measured.
• Useful for the temperature measurement of the moving objects.

Disadvantage of optical pyrometer

• Measurement is completely based on the light intensity, it can be useful only to
measure relatively high temperature.

Infrared/Radiation Pyrometer
As shown in the figure, the radiation pyrometer has an optical system such as it has
an optical lens, mirror, and adjustable eyepiece. The heat energy is transferred through the
optical lens to the mirror. The mirror focuses this energy on the detector.The detector may be
either thermopile or photomultiplier tubes. The photomultiplier tubes are much faster than
the thermopile. Thus temperature measurement is much faster when used photomultiplier
tubes.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

The detector converts the collected heat energy into an electrical current signal and drives it
to the control unit or temperature display.

Application of Pyrometer
These are some examples where pyrometer is used for temperature measurement,
⇒ Blast Furnace temperature measurement.
⇒ Steam Boiler
⇒ Gas Turbine Engines
⇒ Hot Air Balloon.

Distinction between Pyrheliometer and Pyranometer

 Pyrheliometer is used for measuring the solar beam radiation, whereas a
pyranometer is used for measuring the total and diffuse radiation.
 In a pyrheliometer, the sensor disc is located at the base of a tube, whose
axis is aligned with the direction of sun‟s rays, thus blocking the diffuse radiation. In
case of pyranometers, the disc is exposed to absorb the total radiation.
 A shading ring is used, if it is used for measuring the diffuse radiation alone.
 In Pyrheliometers, a mechanical tilting arrangement is essential to move the sensor to
follow the sun‟s rays, i.e., the ray is always be perpendicular to the sensor plate, while
in a pyranometer the sensor is kept at a constant position.
 In pyrheliometer, the aperture angle and the tracking mechanism may not be perfect
and induce errors in the measurements, Such problems are not there in a
pyranometer.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

Solar Cells or PV Cells

Photovoltaic cells are semi conductor devices that convert sunlight into direct current.Photo
voltaic cell is based on photoelectric effect, certain materials will produce small amount of
current when exposed to light

Construction of Solar cell

The cell composed of a thin wafer consisting of a ultra thin layer of phosphorous doped(n
type) silicon on top of a boron doped (p-type) silicon.Hence a p-n junction is formed between
two. A metallic grid forms one of the electrical contact of the diode and allows light to fall on
the semiconductor between the grid lines. Since semiconductors are reflective in nature, an
antireflection layer between the grid lines increases the amount of light transmitted to the
semiconductor. The cell‟s other electrical contact is formed by a metallic layer on the back of
the solar cell .The whole arrangement is kept inside a thin glass to avoid mechanical shock.

Working of Solar cell:

The working of solar cell is based on photovoltaic effect. It is a effect in which current or
voltage is generated when exposed to light. Through this effect solar cells convert sunlight
into electrical energy.A depletion layer is formed at the junction of the N type and P type
semiconductor material. When light energy of the sun rays falls on the solar panel, the
photons which is the small bundle of energy whose energy is higher than the energy gap gives
energy to the electrons and holes in the depletion region.
The electrons and holes move to the higher level which is the conduction band. The electrons
move towards N type and holes move towards P type end. When these ends are electrically
connected there is a flow of current between the two ends through external circuit .Thus
photoelectric current is produced and available for use

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

Solar cell is the basic building module and it is in octagonal shape and in bluish black colour.
Each cell produces 0.5 voltage. 36 to 60 solar cells in 9 to 10 rows of solar cells are joined
together to form a solar panel. For commercial use upto 72 cells are connected. By increasing
the number of cells the wattage and voltage can be increased. The thickness of solar panel is
in the range 2.5 to 4cm. Many modules together form the solar array.
A photovoltaic array is a system composed of multiple PV modules. They can be connected
in one or more series circuits, which are connected to a combiner box to provide a single
direct-current output. This output can be used to charge batteries, power DC loads, or fed to
an inverter to provide an AC voltage for home appliances or exporting to the electric grid.

SOLAR PV POWER GENERATION

Solar Photovoltaic Systems: Solar Photovoltaic System uses solar cells to convert light into
electricity. A PV system consists of PV modules and balance of systems (BOS). Balance of
systems includes module support structure, storage, wiring, power electronics, etc.
DC (direct current) electricity is generated when solar radiation strikes the PV module. Power
can be used in any DC load directly during this generation. But the generation exists during
daytime. So, some storage device is needed to run the system at night or in low sunshine
hour. Again this power cannot be used to run any AC (alternate current) load. Inverter has to
be used to convert DC into AC.

Solar PV systems are categories into 3 types

1. Stand-alone PV systems (also called off-grid systems)
2. Grid connected PV systems (also called on-grid systems)
3. Hybrid systems

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

Stand-alone PV systems:

Stand-alone systems are not connected with utility power lines and these are self-sufficient
systems. These systems could either be used to charge the batteries that serve as an energy
storage device or could work directly using the solar energy available in the daytime.
These systems consist of the following: Solar panels mounted on the roof or in open spaces.
Photovoltaic modules produce direct current (DC) electrical power. Batteries to store DC
energy generated by the solar panels. Charge controller to prevent overcharging the battery.
Inverter to convert electricity produced by the system from DC to AC power.
The diagram shows a PV system powering AC loads with a battery bank. DC loads can also
be connected directly to the battery bank. It is also possible to power the AC load without a
battery, but in that case it would be confined only to daytime when solar radiation is sufficient
to generate required electricity

Grid connected PV systems:

A grid connected photovoltaic system will be interacted with utility grid. The main advantage
of this system is that power can be drawn from the utility grid and when power is not
available from grid, PV system can supplement that power. These grid connected systems are
designed with battery or without battery storage.
These systems consist of the following:
Solar panels mounted on the roof or in open spaces.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

Photovoltaic modules produce direct current (DC) electrical power. Batteries to store DC
energy generated by the solar panels.
Charge controller to prevent overcharging the battery.

Specially designed inverter to transform the PV generated DC electricity to the grid

electricity (which is of AC) at the grid voltage.m.
Whenever the solar PV supply exceeds the building‟s demand, excess electricity will be
exported into the grid.
When there is no sunlight to generate PV electricity at night, the power grid will supply all of
the building‟s demand.
The diagram shows PV system powering AC loads. This system is connected to utility power
supply and having battery storage for backup.

Hybrid solar PV systems:

Sometimes, it is not economical or practical to provide all energy from a PV system. In such
cases, it may be more economical to provide some of the system energy needs by other
means, such as diesel/gasoline generators or any other non-conventional source like wind or
fuel cells. Such a system is called a hybrid system. The best cost-effectiveness is generally
obtained when none of the PV- generated energy is wasted.

Advantages of PV systems
• PV panels provide clean – green energy. During electricity generation with PV panels
there is no harmful greenhouse gas emissions thus solar PV is environmentally
friendly.
• Solar energy is energy supplied by nature – it is thus free and abundant!
• Solar energy can be made available almost anywhere there is sunlight
• Solar panels cost is currently on a fast reducing track and is expected to continue
reducing for the next years – consequently solar PV panels has indeed a highly
promising future both for economical viability and environmental sustainability.
• PV panels provide clean – green energy. During electricity generation with PV panels
there is no harmful greenhouse gas emissions thus solar PV is environmentally
friendly.
• Solar energy is energy supplied by nature – it is thus free and abundant!
• Solar energy can be made available almost anywhere there is sunlight
• Solar panels cost is currently on a fast reducing track and is expected to continue
reducing for the next years – consequently solar PV panels has indeed a highly
promising future both for economical viability and environmental sustainability.

Disadvantages of PV systems
• As in all renewable energy sources, solar energy has intermittency issues; not
shining at night but also during daytime there may be cloudy or rainy
weather.Consequently, intermittency and unpredictability of solar energy makes
solar energy panels less reliable a solution.
• Solar energy panels require additional equipment (inverters) to convert direct
electricity (DC) to alternating electricity (AC) in order to be used on the power
network.
• For a continuous supply of electric power, especially for on-grid connections,
Photovoltaic panels require not only Inverters but also storage batteries; thus
increasing the investment cost for PV panels considerably

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

• As in all renewable energy sources, solar energy has intermittency issues; not
shining at night but also during daytime there may be cloudy or rainy
weather.Consequently, intermittency and unpredictability of solar energy makes
solar energy panels less reliable a solution.
• Solar energy panels require additional equipment (inverters) to convert direct
electricity (DC) to alternating electricity (AC) in order to be used on the power
network.
• For a continuous supply of electric power, especially for on-grid connections,
Photovoltaic panels require not only Inverters but also storage batteries; thus
increasing the investment cost for PV panels considerably

Solar PV applications
Grid-interactive PV power generation:
It uses solar energy to generate renewable power that charges batteries for use during power
failures and feeds power into the electricity grid.
Water pumping:
Solar power is commonly used for water pumping facilities which has been proved more
effective in villages for agricultural purposes. The energy from the solar panel is used to
operate the pump that is used to lift the water from lower level to higher level.
Lighting:
Solar photovoltaic lighting system can be used for street lights, and rural areas. Small sized
panels can easily harness enough energy to glow a street light and LEDs.
Medical refrigeration:
Many life-saving medical supplies, particularly vaccines, require refrigeration during storage
and transportation in order to remain effective. WHO has specified technical details for PV-
based refrigerators using solar energy for such applications. The volume of a refrigerator
chamber varies from 20-100 litres with the freezer volume ranging from 10-35 litres. The PV
module size ranges from 100 W to over 600 W with a 12 V/24 V battery, of 150 to over 600
Ah.
Village power:
Solar PV power can be used to meet low energy demands of many remote, isolated and
generally unapproachable villages in most developing countries. Two approaches have
generally been used:
(1) Individual SPV system for every household.
(2) A centralized SPV plant to meet combined load demand of the whole village.
Both approaches have been extensively tried out in most parts of the world,particularly in
developing countries. Whereas a centralized village PV power system requires large scale
integrated planning and execution, individual village household systems may be available
off-the-shelf.

Telecommunication and signalling:

Solar PV power is ideally suited for telecommunication applications such as local telephone
exchange, radio and TV broadcasting, microwave and other forms of electronic
communication links. This is because, in most telecommunication applications, storage
batteries are already in use and the electrical systems are basically DC. Radio and TV signals
may not reach in hilly and mountainous terrain as they get blocked or reflected back due to

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

the undulating terrain. At these locations, either low-power transmitters (LPT) or very low-
power transmitters (VLPT) are installed to receive and retransmit the signals for the local
population. As these locations are generally remote and normal grid supply is not available,
these are powered by solar photovoltaic electricity .
Power in Space
The solar arrays arranged in the space station produce more than required power for the space
station. When the station is in sunlight, about 60 percent of the electricity that the solar arrays
generate is used to charge the station's batteries. Solar panels on spacecraft supply power for
two main uses, firstly, power to run the sensors, active heating, cooling and telemetry.
Power for spacecraft propulsion – electric propulsion, sometimes called solar - electric
propulsion. Solar panels used in space are not the same as ones used in terrestrial
applications. They do not require any glass lamination to prevent moisture. They must be
capable to withstand elevated temperatures and hence the material used is different.

Transportation:
PV can provide auxiliary power for vehicles such as cars and boats. Automobile sunroofs can
include PV for onboard power needs or trickle-charging batteries. Lightweight PV can also
conform to the shape of aeroplane wings to help power high-altitude aircraft

I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell

• Isc is the short circuit current and it is measured by short circuiting the terminals.
Voc is the open circuit voltage and it is measured when no load is connected. Pm is
maximum power, Im is maximum current, Vm is maximum voltage and it occurs at
the bend of the characteristic curve.
• The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon
PV cell operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a single solar cell
or panel is the product of its output current and voltage ( I x V ).
• If the multiplication is done, point for point, for all voltages from short-circuit to
open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained for a given radiation level.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E) MODULE 2 NOTES

• With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be
at its minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the
solar cells open circuit voltage, or Voc.
• At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the positive and
negative leads connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum (zero)
but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum, known as the solar
cells short circuit current, or Isc.
• Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit
current ( Isc ) at zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit voltage
( Voc ).
• In other words, the maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the
maximum current at closed circuit. Of course, neither of these two conditions
generates any electrical power, but there must be a point somewhere in between were
the solar cell generates maximum power.
• However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for which the
power reaches its maximum value, at Imp and Vmp. In other words, the point at
which the cell generates maximum electrical power and this is shown at the top right
area of the green rectangle. This is the “maximum power point” or MPP. Therefore
the ideal operation of a photovoltaic cell (or panel) is defined to be at the maximum
power point.

Theory Question Bank

1. Sketch and explain solar radiation on horizontal and inclined surfaces(JAN/FEB
2023)
2. With a neat sketch explain solar pond electric plant (JAN/FEB 2023)
3. Explain V-I characteristics of solar cell(JAN/FEB 2023)
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of solar flat plate collectors(JAN/FEB
2023)
5. With a neat sketch explain solar distillation(JAN/FEB 2023)
6. Briefly explain any four applications of solar photovoltaic systems(JAN/FEB 2023)
7. With a neat diagram, explain the solar pond and write any one advantage of it
8. How do pyranometers and pyrheliometers differ in their measurement of solar
radiation?
9. How does a solar pond electric power plant work, and what are its advantages and
limitations as a renewable energy source?

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, AJIET, MANGALORE