mportant Objectives of Quality Control

1. Ensure Product Quality:

o Confirm that products or services meet specified standards and

requirements.

o Maintain consistency and uniformity across all outputs.

2. Detect and Eliminate Defects:

o Identify errors, flaws, or defects during production.

o Implement corrective actions to prevent defective products from reaching

customers.

3. Maintain Consistency:

o Ensure uniform quality across all batches, units, or services.

o Standardize processes to reduce variability.

4. Enhance Customer Satisfaction:

o Deliver products or services that meet or exceed customer expectations.

o Build customer trust and loyalty through consistent quality.

5. Reduce Costs and Waste:

o Minimize rework, rejects, and wastage by catching defects early.

o Improve e iciency and lower production costs.

6. Ensure Compliance:

o Meet industry standards, legal requirements, and contractual specifications.

o Avoid legal issues and maintain certifications.

7. Facilitate Continuous Improvement:

o Provide data and feedback to improve production processes over time.

o Implement changes that enhance quality and e iciency.

8. Minimize Risks:

o Prevent defective products from causing harm, dissatisfaction, or recalls.

o Protect brand reputation and avoid financial losses.

 9. Improve Process Control:

o Utilize statistical tools and techniques to monitor and improve processes.

o Achieve optimal operational performance.

10. Promote Safety and Reliability:

 Ensure safe and reliable products, especially in critical industries like

pharmaceuticals, automotive, and aerospace.

CONTROL CHARTS Control charts are the plots used to monitor outputs or inputs of a
process, which produces a product or service for meeting the customer's requirements.

Variable data are the measured value of a product (or service) characteristics, such as
length, weight, diameter, temperature, hardness, etc. Attributes data are mainly of Go-No-
Go type, proportion or fraction of defective (or deviation) type. In this category, P-chart uses
fraction defective of good/bad type, C-chart uses number of defectives per unit (when a
single defective may not be of greater significance but a large number of defectives 'would
add up to a defective item). A detail consideration for all the charts are given in Table 33.1
and Table 33.4. In these tables, the formula for control limits of the chart is also given. The
values of constants in the formula (for example, A2 in X chart, D4 and D3 in R chart, A3, B4
and B3 in X and S chart) are given in Table 33.3, for, di erent Values of sample size (n).
A control chart used to monitor the central tendency (mean) of a process over time.

Salient Features:

1. Purpose: Tracks changes in the process average (mean).

2. Data Type: Uses continuous data (e.g., weight, length, temperature).

3. Central Line (CL): Represents the overall process mean (average of sample means).

4. Control Limits: Upper Control Limit (UCL) and Lower Control Limit (LCL) are
calculated using standard deviation or range.

5. Detection of Shifts: E ective for identifying small to moderate shifts in process

mean.

6. Sensitivity: More sensitive to changes in central tendency than spread.

7. Application: Commonly used when the sample size is relatively large (n > 1).

8. Interpretation: Points outside control limits or showing trends/patterns indicate a

process shift.

9. Calculation:

o CL=XˉCL = \bar{X}CL=Xˉ (Average of all sample means)

o UCL=Xˉ+A2×RˉUCL = \bar{X} + A_2 \times \bar{R}UCL=Xˉ+A2×Rˉ

o LCL=Xˉ−A2×RˉLCL = \bar{X} - A_2 \times \bar{R}LCL=Xˉ−A2×Rˉ

Where A2A_2A2 is a constant based on sample size.

R Chart (Range Chart):

A control chart used to monitor process variability or dispersion over time.

Salient Features:

1. Purpose: Tracks changes in the process spread (range).

2. Data Type: Uses continuous data; focuses on the range within subgroups.

3. Central Line (CL): Represents the average range of samples (Rˉ\bar{R}Rˉ).

 4. Control Limits: Upper Control Limit (UCL) and Lower Control Limit (LCL) calculated
using statistical formulas.

5. Detection of Variation: E ective for detecting increases or decreases in process

variability.

6. Sensitivity: Sensitive to changes in process dispersion, not the mean.

7. Application: Usually used together with ̄X Chart to provide a complete view of

process control.

8. Interpretation: Points outside control limits or unusual patterns indicate variation

in process spread.

a : Producer's risk, defined as: probability of a batch being good or even better than
AQL (Acceptable Quality Level) but yielding a bad sample and thus getting rejected.
Thus, it is the probability of rejecting a good lot, which otherwise would have been
accepted.

: Consumer's risk, defined as: probability of a lot being bad or even worse than the
limiting quality but yielding a good sample and thus getting accepted. Thus, it is the
probability of a defective batch being accepted which otherwise would have been
rejected.

Acceptable Quality Level (AQL) is a statistical measurement used in quality control to

define the maximum percentage or proportion of defective items that is considered
acceptable during sampling inspection. It represents a quality standard that buyers and
manufacturers agree upon for a specific batch or lot.
 To establish a threshold for acceptable quality during inspection.

 To balance between producer risk (α) and consumer risk (β)

AQL values are usually expressed as a percentage (e.g., AQL = 1.5% means up to 1.5%
defective items are acceptable).

LTPD: Lot Tolerance Percentage Defectivs, defined as the proportion of bad components
(somewhat

larger than AQL) in a lot such that the lot having more than this proportion of defective
components

have a small probability of getting accepted.

 REFER TO PAGE 518 make short writing itna kon likhe BC

Problem Solving/ POCA/ PDSA The POCA cycle is a graphical and logical
representation of how most individuals have already solved problems. It helps to think that
every activity and job is part of a process, that each stage has a customer and that the
improvement cycle will send a superior product or service to the final customer. PLAN:
establish a plan to achieve a goal, DO: enact the plan, CHECK: measure and analyze the
results and ACT: implement necessary reforms if results are not as expected A system for
identifying and solving problems to their root cause and then implementing counter
measures with monitoring.