mathematics

Article
Design of a Novel Chaotic Horse Herd Optimizer and
Application to MPPT for Optimal Performance of
Stand-Alone Solar PV Water Pumping Systems
Rabeh Abbassi 1,2,3, * and Salem Saidi 2,4

1 Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Ha’il,

Ha’il City 81451, Saudi Arabia
2 LaTICE Laboratory, Higher National Engineering School of Tunis (ENSIT), University of Tunis,
5 Avenue Taha Hussein, P.O. Box 56, Tunis 1008, Tunisia
3 Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology of Kasserine (ISSATKas), University of Kairouan,
P.O. Box 471, Kasserine 1200, Tunisia
4 National School of Advanced Sciences and Technologies of Borj Cedria (ENSTAB), University of Carthage,
P.O. Box 122, Hammam-Chott 1164, Tunisia
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: A significant part of agricultural farms in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) are in
off-grid sites where there is a lack of sufficient water supply despite its availability from groundwater
resources in several regions of the country. Since abundant agricultural production is mainly depen-
dent on water, farmers are forced to pump water using diesel generators. This investigation deals
with the increase in the effectiveness of a solar photovoltaic water pumping system (SPVWPS). It
investigated, from a distinct perspective, the nonlinear behavior of photovoltaic modules that affects
the induction motor-pump because of the repeated transitions between the current and the voltage.
A new chaotic Horse Herd Optimization (CHHO)-based Maximum Power Point Tracking technique
(MPPT) is proposed. This algorithm integrates the capabilities of chaotic search methods to solve
the model with a boost converter to maximize power harvest while managing the nonlinear and
unpredictable dynamical loads. The analytical modeling for the proposed SPVWPS components
Citation: Abbassi, R.; Saidi, S. Design and the implemented control strategies of the optimal duty cycle of the DC–DC chopper duty cycle
of a Novel Chaotic Horse Herd and the Direct Torque Control (DTC) of the Induction Motor (IM) has been conducted. Otherwise,
Optimizer and Application to MPPT the discussions and evaluations of the proposed model performance in guaranteeing the maximum
for Optimal Performance of water flow rate and the operation at MPP of the SPVWPS under partial shading conditions (PSC)
Stand-Alone Solar PV Water Pumping and changing weather conditions have been carried out. A comparative study with competitive
Systems. Mathematics 2024, 12, 594. algorithms was conducted, and the proposed control system’s accuracy and its significant appro-
https://doi.org/10.3390/
priateness to improve the tracking ability for SPVWPS application have been proven in steady and
math12040594
dynamic operating climates and PSC conditions.
Academic Editor: Kotb Basem Tawfiq
Keywords: metaheuristic optimization; artificial intelligence; solar photovoltaic water pumping;
Received: 16 January 2024
Saudi Vision 2030; smart irrigation systems; power reliability and energy efficiency; maximum power
Revised: 15 February 2024
point tracking; sustainable agriculture
Accepted: 15 February 2024
Published: 17 February 2024
MSC: 68T20; 39A33

Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 1. Introduction
This article is an open access article 1.1. Motivation
distributed under the terms and
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Mathematics 2024, 12, 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/math12040594 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/mathematics

Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 2 of 26

coal, natural gas, oil, uranium, and water [1]. The major problem with such conventional
exhaustible resources is that their regeneration rate is extremely slow on a human lifetime
scale, as they require millions of years to be formed. Faced with these dilemmas, the growth
in energy demand, and the risk of overuse of these resources, a significant increase in the
world price of oil is increasingly experienced. However, this type of energy consumption
has negative impacts on the environment. In fact, the important emission of greenhouse
gases plays a decisive role in climate change and the increase in pollution and temperature
around the world. As a result, the world’s attention has been focused on alternative
solutions to limit any adverse environmental impacts. For example, the development of
non-polluting energy resources based on renewable energies, which have the advantage of
natural and indefinite regeneration on the time scale of our civilization, is being increasingly
emphasized. For its own part, the energy from the Sun alone currently meets these criteria
of both abundance on the surface of the Earth and infinite regeneration. Solar energy can
be used directly in thermal form or after conversion into electrical energy via photovoltaic
(PV) cells.
In the agricultural sector, which includes various activities that, in some sense, con-
stitute the main economic engine of several countries, most solar energy applications are
direct, such as photosynthesis, drying, heating applications, etc., or indirect, such as irri-
gation, water desalination, and various other applications. In particular, the groundwater
resources available in Saudi Arabia (especially in Hail), which are not yet well exploited for
irrigation, need to be rationalized. Moreover, these water resources are usually extracted
artificially for the irrigation of cultivated vegetation to increase their productivity and allow
their normal development in the event of a water deficit induced by rainfall. Pumping
groundwater requires the use of electricity, which is not widely available in all desert and
remote sites. One solution is, therefore, to use an available renewable source, such as
solar photovoltaic energy, to pump water since non-renewable resources are exhaustible
and polluting. The geographical location of Hail promotes the development of solar PV
energy use. Indeed, due to the high intensity of radiation received, the region of Hail,
the pioneer of the use of solar energy in the Kingdom, can cover some of its needs with
solar energy. These advantages could be beneficial in the most remote areas, especially
in the application of water pumping in the agricultural sector. Consequently, with the
KSA’s trends to decrease water consumption and further develop the agricultural sector
and green energy, the development of sustainable agriculture is an objective investment
in accordance with Vision 2030. In this context, the objective of this study is to investigate
the innovation of a pilot program that aims to highlight opportunities for sustainable
agriculture in the Hail region using a smart water pumping system controlled by artificial
intelligence (AI) and powered by a solar photovoltaic generator. The contribution of this
project is the proposal of a feasibility study and smart control based on AI techniques
and new bioinspired metaheuristic optimization algorithms. This skill will be helpful in
guaranteeing a sufficiently autonomous and flexible smart system that can ensure service
continuity and contribute to the advancement of sustainable agriculture while saving water,
energy, and the environment and ensuring reliability and efficiency.

1.2. Literature Review and Related Works

The availability and use of energy are increasingly critical for the social and economic
development of societies and are the primary resources for improving human life. In 2020,
approximately one billion people worldwide live in small and remote villages that do not
have access to electricity from power grids [2]. In many cases, extending the distribution
grid is unachievable because of the dispersed population or rugged terrain; therefore, stand-
alone power systems are emerging as the most viable options. In particular, the agricultural
sector, on which food security and nutrition depend, is a major consumer of natural
resources such as land, soil, water, and energy. This sector depends on energy to ensure the
growing, transporting, and processing of crops and livestock. Conventional non-renewable
fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) are the most widely used in the current agricultural
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 3 of 26

sector [3]. However, this primary energy source, whose resources have become very
depleted, emits large amounts of greenhouse gases that are responsible for climate change.
To address this critical challenge, Saudi Arabia, like many other developed countries around
the world, has chosen renewable energy as a good alternative according to the Vision 2030
guidelines [4]. The combination of several renewable energy resources, such as hybrid
wind-PV systems and conventional diesel generators with or without the use of battery
storage, is a cost-effective and environmentally friendly source of electricity generation that
is being commercialized over the long term. In particular, solar energy in Saudi Arabia is
considered the most capable renewable source of energy for rapid, sustainable agricultural
development, mainly in rural desert areas [5]. Modern, well-designed, simple to maintain,
and cost-effective solar PV systems can provide the necessary energy whenever needed.
The Sun is an economical and useful source of energy with a good level of safety and
environmental friendliness [6]. One of the applications of photovoltaic system technology
without polluting emissions and without the need for fuel is the provision of the energy
needed for irrigation and the promotion of sustainable agriculture in rural areas [7].
Increasing attention is currently being devoted to studies that have led to progress
in the application of photovoltaic systems to cover a load of agricultural operations such
as animal farming, heating and cooling of the dairy farm, pumping water for drinking
water supply and agricultural irrigation. . . [8,9]. Many researchers have studied the use of
these systems. Everest [10] presented a comprehensive study on the forms of renewable
energy and the potential for its exploitation by the Turkish agricultural industry. Mahto [11]
conducted a similar study in India to develop the use of renewable energy to promote
sustainable agriculture. To simultaneously generate renewable electricity and reduce water
evaporation at the same time, Ravichandran et al. [12] investigated an innovative floating
photovoltaic cover for irrigation reservoirs. Mazhar et al. [13] investigated the techno-
economic factors influencing the adoption of renewable energy in the Gilgit–Baltistan
region of Pakistan. Irfan et al. also examined the feasibility of using solar heating systems
to reduce energy consumption of poultry farms [14]. Many other studies have investigated
the use of renewable energy in farms, such as in the design of a PV-pumped water irrigation
system for crops in the Algerian Sahara region. Other studies have been developed in the
same context of solar energy in farms, reliability, feasibility, and economic assessments
in various case studies for PV systems, either grid-connected or stand-alone [15,16]. To
further advance research in this field in terms of modeling, simulation, sizing, economic
analysis, and in particular optimization, various software tools such as HOMER, Hybrid2,
RETScreen, iHOGA, Hyb Swim, and HySys have been developed [17]. More recently, Filipe
Pereira et al. [18] elaborated a complete study of a smart farm including several phases
(economic study, control, monitoring, and introduction of the PV system). The results
showed that a reduction of 83.2% of the grid energy can be achieved using the photovoltaic
system, with a CO2 savings of 5527 kg and an investment yield of approximately 8 years.
In addition, Sangeetha B. P. et al. [19] introduced an intelligent farm management system
to improve agricultural benefits and crop production. Thus, the method fulfills all its
objectives in terms of water consumption, total operating costs, labor reduction, energy
consumption, and productivity. Other studies [20] have provided methodologies for sizing
smart PV irrigation systems. The numerical results show that the presented methods led
to improved irrigation scheduling and, consequently, improved utilization compared to
conventional approaches.
In solar PVWPSs, optimizing PV power extraction is a crucial task. The performance
of a PV Generator (PVG) is considerably influenced by meteorological conditions and the
phenomena that affect them, such as partial shading and dust accumulation. As a result, the
global peak of the voltage/power (P-V) characteristic can fluctuate, and even multiple local
peaks can be detected [21,22]. These and other phenomena lead to a significant reduction in
the power produced by the PVG and affect its lifespan. To address this issue and counteract
such impacts with the aim of optimally harvesting the maximum available power from
the PV system, a series of studies have been proposed [23,24]. In particular, metaheuristic-
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 4 of 26

based approaches have been widely used such as Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) [25],
Extended Grey Wolf Optimizer (EGWO) [26], Moth flame optimization (MFO) [27], Spider
Monkey Optimization (SMO) [28] , Honey Badger Optimizer (HBO) [29], Hunter Pray
Optimizer (HPO) [30], and Arithmetic Optimization Algorithm (AOA) [31].
These research initiatives are aimed at improving the efficiency of PV systems by
adopting the principle of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT). As their name implies,
MPPT techniques allow one to extract the maximum power that the PVG can deliver. Over
the years, the investigation of robust MPPT methods for tracking the Maximum Power
Point (MPP) of PV systems has been the focus of several research studies. These research
initiatives are aimed at improving the efficiency of PV systems by adopting the principle
of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT). As their name implies, MPPT techniques
allow one to extract the maximum power that the PVG can deliver. Over the years, the
investigation of robust MPPT methods for tracking the Maximum Power Point (MPP) of
PV systems and wind energy conversion systems has been the focus of several research
studies [32].
Although these approaches are designed for the same purpose, they differ significantly
in terms of performance, tracking speed, software complexity, hardware implementation,
steady-state oscillations, and whether the overall MPP is accurately tracked during rapid
changes in meteorological conditions. To bring this topic closer to PVWPS applications,
researchers have investigated this subject worldwide. In [33], three MPPT controls based
on Variable Step Size Perturb and Observe (VSS-P&O), Variable Step Size Incremental
conductance (VSS-INC), and a Kalman filter (KF) were used in combination with DTC to
optimize the control of a PVWPS equipped with a multilevel inverter and IM. It has been
shown that in the case of abrupt changes in irradiance, KF-MPPT performed better than VSS-
P&O and VSS-INC in terms of temporal response and power oscillation. Another study [34]
investigated the economic and environmental benefits of a PVWPS through optimal MPPT
based on genetic algorithms to assess its ability to meet the energy needs for irrigation in the
Meknes region of Morocco. Two coupling methods for the solar generator were analyzed
and discussed. Ahmed et al. [35] conducted some performance evaluations of the prediction
of the duty cycle of a DC–DC converter to allow the optimization of the water flow rate of
a PVWPS by ensuring its operation at MPP under changing atmospheric conditions. In the
context of meeting the water needs of rural areas, a PVWPS encompassing a high-gain boost
DC–DC chopper controlled by a Semi Pilot Cell-based Fractional Open Circuit Voltage (SPC-
FOCV) MPPT and an inverter driving a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM)-
Pump Assembly by Space Vector Modulation (SVM) technique was proposed in [36,37].
In [38], a sensorless speed control approach was proposed to improve the efficiency and
reliability of PVWPS in real-world applications. The proposed system combines a PV
Generator (PVG) and a three-phase induction motor, both driven by adaptive power
control to determine the maximum power point of the PVG and the input reference speed
for the DTC control. The overall control process operates as a closed-loop system without a
speed sensor because the speed estimation is provided by the Extended Kalman–Bucy filter.
The integration of AI theories has been exploited to increase the efficiency of a PVWPS using
a radial basis function neural network (RBFNN) driving a single-ended primary inductor
converter (SEPIC) to ensure MPPT of the PV generator, and then feeding a brushless DC
(BLDC) motor through a voltage source inverter (VSI) [39]. Various performance indicators,
such as the MPP settling time, current ripple, voltage ripple, average power loss, torque
ripple, and total harmonic distortion (THD) of the stator current, have been investigated to
prove the efficiency of the control system. The authors of [40] developed an application of
a PVWPS equipped with a three-phase induction motor without a DC–DC converter. The
daily amount of pumped water has been increased to a higher level, reaching approximately
80%, regardless of environmental variations.
In the same respect as the reviewed works, this research falls within the framework
of an innovative project aimed at highlighting the potential of photovoltaic pumping
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 5 of 26

driven by artificial intelligence techniques to cover water needs and its contribution to the
development of sustainable local agriculture in the Hail region.

1.3. Contributions and Outline

The Horse Herd Optimization (HHO) algorithm is a novel nature-inspired algorithm
developed by MiarNaeimi et al. [41]. It imitates the horses’ herding behavior. Such
behavior mimics the social life of horses by exploring six key features: the grazing process,
herd hierarchy, sociability between members, imitation of observed behaviors, defense
mechanisms, and roam nature. The carefully selected HHO has been persuaded by its
various features, in contrast to competitive metaheuristic optimizers, even for the MPPT
problem [42]. The favorable performance of this algorithm can be explained as follows.
• Regular classification of search agents according to their location and fitness.
• Powerful leadership process by decreasing the number of search particles and the
continuous improvement of the state of the particles during each classification.
• Simultaneous exploitation of the six key behaviors to adjust the horse herd’s performance.
• Low computational cost through speed sorting exploitation in MATLAB.
• Harmonious relationships between the horses’ motion guaranteeing the HHO high per-
formance.
• Accurate convergence to the best solution through efficient trade-off between explo-
ration and exploitation.
Considering the significant properties of the chaos theory that enable the maintenance
of population diversity and, consequently, the ability to improve the quality of the global
optimum search and escape falling into a local optimum when dealing with complicated
problems, a new chaotic HHO (CHHO) optimizer has been proposed to address the
aforementioned issue.
Within this framework, the main contributions of the present study are revealed below.
• To propose and implement the CHHO optimizer to tackle the challenge of the DC–DC
chopper control via the tracking of the maximum power to optimize a solar PV water
pumping system.
• To carry out an enriching comparative analysis study of the CHHO performance and
those of Perturb and Observe (P&O), Particle Swarm optimizer (PSO), and original
HHO when implemented, taking into account the same assumptions.
• To assess the performance of the proposed CHHO in steady and dynamic operating
climates, as well as under PSC conditions compared to these algorithms.
• To highlight the distinction of the proposed CHHO in terms of accuracy, stability,
speed, power efficiency, and water flow rate.
The mathematical representation of the system studied is presented in Section 2. It
explains the modeling and design of the PVWPS components and control systems, as well
as the proposed CHHO-MPPT method. Section 3 describes the simulation and analysis of
the results, and the work is concluded in Section 4.

2. Modeling and Design of the Solar Photovoltaic-Powered Pumping System

To harvest the groundwater, the pumping system ensures that the water is transported
and circulated to different use points. In the present work, the investigated system is a
renewable energy source-based water pumping system without energy storage. It consists
of a centrifugal water pump driven by a three-phase induction motor powered by a
photovoltaic generator. The adaptation stage between the load and the PV power source
consists of a series combination of a boosted DC–DC chopper and a three-phase, three-arm
voltage source inverter. The chopper is controlled by a Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) technique to ensure maximum power extraction to the load. The VSI inverter is
controlled by the DTC approach, which synthesizes three controllers: one for speed control
and two others for direct and quadratic stator currents control. In this context, the main
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 6 of 26

challenge is to control a complex sixth-order system with a high degree of nonlinearity.

Figure 1 shows the synoptic diagram of the photovoltaic pumping system.

Boost Converter Inverter Motor pump

L
G
Co Vo
V Vpv

Switching signal D Switching signals

vpv dbest Measurements

A CHHO based +
-

Motor control
MPPT Speed Motor voltage

method
ipv reference
Flux Motor current
reference
Actual speed

Figure 1. Stand-alone solar photovoltaic water pumping system schematic diagram.

2.1. Solar PV Generator Modeling

When illuminated, a PV cell generates a current I proportional to the irradiance it
receives. During its operation, it behaves like a diode. It flows a diode current ID when
connected to a load. Figure 2 shows the equivalent electrical diagram of a photovoltaic cell.

1 2 Ipv

I
1
Iph Isd Ish Rs Vpv
Rsh V Nss such Npp Strings 250 W PV
panels in in Parallel Panels each
series
(a)
Nss

(b)

Figure 2. PV system: (a) Equivalent circuit of single-diode model. (b) PV array configuration.

According to the model illustrated in Figure 2, the relationships between the flowing
currents can be expressed as shown in expression (1):
  V + IR  
s V + IRs
I = I ph − Isd e ηVt
−1 − (1)
Rsh

Herein, I ph is the photocurrent generated, Isd is the diode reverse saturation current,
Ns is the number of cells connected in series, Rsh is the shunt resistor, Rs is the series resistor
and Vt is the temperature voltage given by Equation (2), where η is the diode ideality factor,
k is Boltzmann’s constant, T is the temperature of the P-N junction, and q is the charge of
an electron.
ηkT
Vt = (2)
q
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 7 of 26

To meet the power requirements, the PV generator consists of a set of Nss panels in
series with a set of Npp panels in parallel. Therefore, the characteristic equation of a PV
generator is given in Equation (3)
    
V + IRs Ns Nss
N pp
 
 
Nss Vt
  V + IRs Ns NNss
pp
Ia = Np I ph − Np Isd e − 1 − (3)
   
Nss
Npp Rsh
 

The parameters of the chosen module are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. The key specifications of the Solar SunPower SPR-X20-250-BLK PV module.

Parameter Value
Open circuit voltage (Voc ) 50.93 V
Voltage at maximum power point (Vmp) 42.8 V
Short circuit current (Isc) 6.2 A
Current at maximum power point (Imp) 5.84 A
Maximum power at STC (Pmax) 249.952 W
Number of cells connected in series 72
Temperature coefficient of Isc 0.013306 A/°C
Temperature coefficient of Voc −0.291 V/°C

The current versus voltage (V-I) and power versus voltage (P-V) characteristics depend
essentially on the irradiance and temperature of the photovoltaic generator. This depen-
dence is shown in Figure 3. Clearly, a change in irradiance, Figure 3a,b, and temperature,
Figure 3c,d, results in a change in the maximum power point, which deviates from its
location as meteorological conditions change.
Module type: SunPower SPR-X20-250-BLK
(a) (b)
7 250 1 kW/m 2
1 kW/m 2
6
0.8 kW/m2 200 0.8 kW/m2
5
Current (A)

Power (W)

0.6 kW/m2 150 0.6 kW/m2

4

3 0.4 kW/m2 100 0.4 kW/m2

2
50
1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 20 40 60
Voltage (V) Voltage (V)

Module type: SunPower SPR-X20-250-BLK

7 250
(c) (d)
6
200
5
Current (A)

Power (W)

150
4 25 o C

3 25 o C 35 o C
100
35 o C 45 o C
2
45 o C 55 o C
50
1 55 o C

0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Voltage (V) Voltage (V)

Figure 3. Influence of irradiance and temperature changes on I-V and P-V characteristics: (a,b) Effect
of irradiance; (c,d) Effect of temperature.
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 8 of 26

2.2. Modeling of the DC/DC Converter

The PV Generator (PVG) is connected to the DC bus via a boost chopper driven by an
MPPT control system (see Figure 2). This converter acts as a matching stage between the
GPV output voltage and the DC bus voltage. The chopper’s operating cycle can be divided
into two distinct time intervals. The first interval, from zero to “αT”, is characterized by
the turn-on of the controlled switch and the blocking of the diode. Applying KIRCHOFF’s
laws, the main equations characterizing the converter in the “ON” state are given by the
following system (Equation (4)):

dI pv
 Vpv = L dt

(4)
 I = −C dVo

o o dt

During the second cycle interval, from “αT” to “T”, the controlled switch is “OFF”
and the diode is “ON”. The boost chopper is thus described by the following system of
Equation (5):

dI
Vpv = L dtpv + V

(5)

 I = I −I
o pv Co

On the basis of the two previously developed equation systems, the mathematical model of
the boost DC–DC converter is derived through the following relationships (Equations (6)
and (7)):
dI pv dI pv
   
Vpv = D L + (1 − D ) L + Vo (6)
dt dt
 
dVo

Io = D −Co + (1 − D ) I pv − ICo (7)
dt
with D the duty cycle of the converter. Therefore, based on the previous equations, the
voltage and current expressions below are deduced:

dI pv
Vpv = L + (1 − D )Vo (8)
dt
dVo
Io = Co + (1 − D ) I pv (9)
dt
In this study, the dynamic duty cycle D is achieved using the MPPT control, which will be
the subject of a later section.
The pumping system control is organized into two distinct aspects: (i) the Maximum
Power Point Tracking (MPPT) control for the PVG, and (ii) the Direct Torque Control (DTC)
of the Induction Motor (IM) speed.

2.3. DTC Control Strategy of the IM

Figure 4a presents the block diagram of a sensorless Direct Torque Control (DTC)
drive. The diagram encompasses two flux and torque comparators, a switching strategy
responsible for generating the switching signals for the voltage source inverter (VSI), and
a torque and stator flux observer [43]. The fundamental concept of the DTC strategy can
be summarized as follows: during each sampling period, the selection of the optimal
voltage vector aims to rapidly minimize the errors in torque and flux magnitude [37,44].
The right application of this principle allows fast and decoupled control of torque and
flux without Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) or current control [45]. As can be seen in
Figure 4a, the error between the estimated torque Te and the reference torque Te∗ is the input
of a three-level hysteresis comparator which is shown in Figure 4b. The error between the
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 9 of 26

estimated stator flux magnitude φs and the reference stator flux magnitude φ∗s is the input
of a two-level hysteresis comparator, which is shown in Figure 4c.

Cϕs
+1
Cs
 s* Ca
∆ϕ s =ϕ − ϕ s*
Cb
Switching table -1
s Bϕ
Cc s

CTe
Te* (b)

CTe
Te
Flux secteur +1

Flux and torque 0 ∆CTe = Te − Te*

Motor
estimator signals
-1
0 BTe

(a) (c)
Figure 4. Block diagram of the DTC scheme for IM. (a) Overall block diagram of DTC. (b) Flux
hysteresis comparator. (c) Torque hysteresis comparator.

The mathematical representation of an induction motor can be accomplished by

utilizing the equations of the stator current vector and rotor flux vector. The induction
machine state space model in the (d, q) frame, which is derived from the Equation (10):

 
dids 1 1− σ 1− σ 1− σ
   
dt
− τs σ + τr σ ωs τr Lm σ Lm σ ω

ids

 diqs   
1 1− σ

1− σ 1− σ

− ωs − + iqs
Lm σ ω
    
 dt = τs σ τr σ τr Lm σ  
dφdr Lm
− τ1r ( ωs − ω )  φds
    
 dt   τr 0
dφqr Lm φqs
dt 
0
 τr −(ωs − ω ) − τ1r (10)
1
σLs 0
1  V
 
 0

+ σLs  ds
0  Vqs

 0
0 0

where Vds and Vqs are the direct and quadrature voltages in the (d, q) reference frame, ids
and iqs are the direct and quadrature stator currents, φdr is the direct component of the
magnetic flux of the rotor, φqr is its quadrature component, ωs is the stator pulsation, ω
is the pulsation corresponding to the mechanical rotational speed, Lm , Lr , and Ls are the
mutual, rotor, and stator self inductances, respectively. τr and τs are the stator and rotor
time constants, respectively. Rs is the stator resistance of the induction machine, and σ is
the leakage factor given by (11):
 
Lm
σ = 1− (11)
Lr L s

In the stationary reference frame, after measuring the stator voltages and currents, the
derivatives of the stator flux components are (12) and (13):

dφsα
= Vsα − Rs isα (12)
dt
dφsβ
= Vsβ − Rs isβ (13)
dt
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 10 of 26

where Rs is the phase stator resistance. The magnitude of the stator flux (φs ) is expressed
as follows (14):
q
φs = φ2sα + φ2sβ (14)

The two voltage components Vsα and Vsβ , in the (α, β) reference frame, are calculated from
the commands (Ca , Cb and Cc ) and the voltage measurement (Ed ) as follows (15) and (16):
r  
2 1
Vsα = E Ca − (Cb + Cc ) (15)
3 d 2
r
1 (16)
Vsβ = E (C − Cc )
2 d b
In Equations (17) and (18), the two components of (φr ) in the (α, β)reference frame are computed.

Lr
φrα = ( φ − σLs isα ) (17)
Lm sα

Lr  
φrβ = φsβ − σLs isβ (18)
Lm
Accordingly, the electromagnetic torque is equated as in Equation (19):


Te = p φsα isα − φsβ isβ (19)

The mechanical equation of the induction machine driving a load is expressed by Equation (20):

d
Te − Tpump = J ω + fω (20)
dt
where J is the moment of inertia f is the coefficient of viscous friction. The resistive torque
exerted by the centrifugal pump can be described.
As such, the mechanical equation of the AC induction machine and the load (pump)
can be rewritten as below (21):
Tpump = a + bω + cω 2 + eω 3 (21)

where ω is the angular velocity and “a”, “b”, “c”, and “e” are the practical characteristic of
the pump taken from the ETAP11 software [46]. Table 2 lists the electric data, including the
main parameters and characteristics of the IM motor.

Table 2. The key specifications of the three-phase induction motor.

Parameter Value
Rated Power 1.5 W
Rated Voltage 380 V
Stator resistance (Rs ) 4.85 Ω
Rotor resistance (Rr) 3.805 Ω
Stator leakage inductance (Ls) 0.274 H
Rotor leakage inductance(Lr) 0.274 H
Magnetizing inductance (M) 0.258 H
Moment of Inertia J 0.02 kg·m2
Friction f 0.01 kg2 ·s−1
Number of poles p 2
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 11 of 26

The sector can be selected based on the position of the estimated stator flux, which can
be obtained from the α− and β-axis stator flux components, as Equation (22) shows below:
 
φβ
θ = tan−1 (22)
φα

where θ presents the angle of stator flux. The regulation of the flux is conducted using a
two-level digital output hysteresis-controller according to the relations given below (23):
(
1 ∆φs = φs − φs∗ ≤ B φ
C φs = (23)
0 ∆φs = φs − φs∗ > B φ

The torque is also regulated by a hysteresis-controller. The difference is that it has three
levels of digital outputs as follows (24):

1 ∆CTe = Te − Te∗ > BTe



CTe = 0 ∆CTe = Te − Te∗ = 0 (24)
−1 ∆CTe = Te − Te∗ < − BTe


Table 3 presents the Optimum Switching Vector Selection Table, which illustrates the
recommended selection of switching vectors in all sectors of the stator flux plane [43]. This
table is constructed based on the values of the stator flux error status, the torque error
status, and the orientation of the stator flux for the counterclockwise rotation of the shaft.

Table 3. Switching table for DTC.

Sector 1 2 3 4 5 6
CTe = −1 V̄2 V̄3 V̄4 V̄5 V̄6 V̄1
C φs =−1 CTe = 0 V̄7 V̄0 V̄7 V̄0 V̄7 V̄0
CTe = +1 V̄6 V̄1 V̄2 V̄3 V̄4 V̄5
CTe = −1 V̄3 V̄4 V̄5 V̄6 V̄1 V̄2
C φs =+1 CTe = 0 V̄0 V̄7 V̄0 V̄7 V̄0 V̄7
CTe = +1 V̄5 V̄6 V̄1 V̄2 V̄3 V̄4

2.4. CHHO-Based MPPT Control of the Boost DC–DC Converter

2.4.1. Horse Herd Optimization Algorithm (HHO)
The Horse Herd Optimization Algorithm (HHO) is a very advanced swarm-based
optimization technique [41]. This algorithm is inspired by the investigation and analysis
of social behavior patterns of horses in their natural environment. It is recognized that,
depending on the age of the horses, their social behavior is mainly limited to the following
six main patterns:
• Grazing (G): Horses are considered grazing animals par excellence, as they spend
most of their time on the pasture eating grasses and forages.
• Hierarchy (H): In the wild, the hierarchy of a herd of horses and the commitment of
each horse to its rank help to reduce aggressive behavior.
• Social communication (S): Horses communicate within their herds in a variety of ways,
making it easier for them to persist in groups.
• Imitation (I): Whatever the typical behavior of horses living in a group, group commu-
nication between them leads to imitation of each other’s behavior.
• Defense mechanism (D): Because of their tremendous speed, horses generally react to
threats by running away; in other cases, they stay in their territory and defend other
members of the herd.
• Roaming (R): In the wild, horses like to spend their time roaming, grazing grass, and
changing locations to discover new places.
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 12 of 26

Thus, independently of their ages, the movement of the horses at each iteration is
simulated according to the six aforementioned behaviors in accordance with Equation (25):

(iter,AGE)
⃗Xm ⃗ m(iter,AGE) + ⃗Xm
(iter,AGE)
=V , AGE = α, β, γ, δ (25)

(iter,AGE)
where ⃗ Xm specifies the position of the mth horse, AGE represents the age range
of the horse under consideration, iter is the iteration number and V ⃗ m(iter,AGE) shows the
velocity vector associated with this horse.
In general, the average lifespan of a horse is estimated at 25–30 years, and it may live
more or less than that period depending on multiple factors related, especially to genetics,
food, and lifestyle. One of the most important basics of this algorithm is dividing the
horses in the flock. In fact, the classification is made by determining the ages of horses
according to frequency based on the following: The first group, called δ, includes horses
that are between 0 and 5 years old. The second group, called γ, includes horses that are
between 5 and 10 years old. The third group, called β, includes horses that are between
10 and 15 years old. The fourth group, called α, includes horses that are older than 15 years.
The selection of the horses’ age responses matrix should be sorted during each iteration.
For any iteration, the horse ages are chosen according to these rules: the α group of horses
represents the top 10% of the ranged population, and the next 20% of the members (horses)
are designated as β. γ members are the subsequent 30%, and the age of the remaining 40%
is retained as δ.
To materialize the speed vector mathematically, taking into account the behaviors
of the different categories of horses, the motion vector of the horses at each HHO step is
represented by the following Equation (26):

⃗ m(iter,α) = G
V ⃗m(iter,α) ⃗m
+D
(iter,α)

⃗ m(iter,β) = G
V ⃗m(iter,β) ⃗m
+H
(iter,β) (iter,β)
+ ⃗Sm ⃗m
+D
(iter,β)
(26)
⃗ m(iter,γ) = G
V ⃗m(iter,γ) ⃗m
+H
(iter,γ) (iter,γ) ⃗ (iter,γ)
+ ⃗Sm + Im ⃗m
+D
(iter,γ (iter,γ)
+ ⃗Rm
⃗ m(iter,δ) = G
V ⃗m(iter,δ) ⃗ (iter,δ)
+ Im
(iter,δ)
+ ⃗Rm

• Grazing step (GS):

Recognizing the horse as an herbivore may seem obvious. However, grazing is
essential for horses from a nutritional, locomotor, and behavioral point of view. When
grazing, the amount of nutrients the horse can extract from the grass depends on its ability
to eat it. In fact, the ingestion capacity is a function of two factors: the time the horse
spends grazing over a 24-h period (between 16 and 20 h) and the speed at which it grazes.
Otherwise, the quality and digestibility of grass is constantly evolving: it is often too high
in relation to the horse’s needs in spring and can become insufficient in very dry summer.
In this case, the horses’ high-performance incisors enable them to cut the vegetation at
ground level to compensate in part for this scarcity and to increase the speed of ingestion
and the grazing area.
Considering the importance of grazing for horses from different ages, the mathematical
expression of the grazing is expressed mathematically as per the Equations (27) and (28).

(iter,AGE) (iter −1)

⃗m
G = giter (ũ + pl˜)[ Xm )], AGE = α, β, γandδ (27)

(iter,AGE) (iter −1),AGE

gm = gm × ωg (28)

⃗m(iter,AGE)
where G is assigned to the identification of the motion parameter of the ith horse,
and exemplifies the capability to graze for the appropriate horse.
This parameter decreases linearity with ω g per iteration of the algorithm. The grazing
space is restricted between its upper limit ũ and the lowest limit l.˜ p is a number chosen
arbitrarily in the interval [0, 1].
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 13 of 26

• Hierarchy (H):
The life of horses in groups is often governed by the theory of dominance, formerly
referred to as hierarchical order. Under natural conditions, a hierarchy in groups of horses
is essential for finding food resources and, above all, avoiding predation. However, the co-
ordination of activities, regardless of differences in individual motivations or physiological
needs, would be their first priority. The hierarchical order is established and implemented
by a series of well-determined behaviors and/or aggressive contact and in relation to
several criteria that may govern hierarchical rank, such as age, weight, group size, stability,
and duration of group membership of each member. Thus, a group of horses necessarily
has a leader who acts as a decision trigger.
Based on collective motions, it has been shown that group members aged between 5
and 15 (i.e., at β and γ ages) are the most motivated and committed to pursuing the indi-
vidual acting as leader. The tendency of the horse herd members to follow the leadership
horse’s decisions is represented by the coefficient hm according to Equations (29) and (30):

⃗m(iter,AGE) (iter,AGE) (iter −1) (iter −1)

H = hm [ X∗ − Xm ], AGE = α, βandγ (29)

(iter,AGE) (iter −1),AGE

hm = hm × ωh (30)
(iter −1) (iter,AGE)
Herein, X∗ illustrates the position of the horse qualified as the best and Hm
simulates how this parameter (best location of the horse) affects the velocity parameter.
• Sociability (S):
Horse social relationships are well established by setting up social statuses that guar-
antee herd stability and keep strong, aggressive behavior to a minimum, therefore reducing
the risk of injury and loss of energy, as well as facilitating escape from predators and
increasing their chances of survival. Although horses live in groups, where those aged 5 to
15 are the most eager to belong to the herd, they are also generally open to other herds, such
as cattle and sheep, and willing to live with them. This is clearly shown by Equations (31)
and (32).
" ! #
1 N (iter−1) (iter −1)
N j∑
(iter,AGE)
⃗Sm (iter,AGE)
= Sm Xj − Xm , AGE = βandγ (31)
=1

(iter,AGE) (iter −1),AGE

sm = sm × ωs (32)

N shows the horse population, and AGE is the age range of each member of the horse herd.
(iter,AGE)
sm is related to the orientation of the ith horse toward the direction of the horse
group. This variable decreases with the ωs factor in each execution cycle. Accordingly,
(iter,AGE)
⃗Sm denotes the ith horse social motion vector. At this stage, the determination of the
coefficients s for the horses belonging to β and γ categories can be derived.
• Imitation (I):
Imitation behavior is considered one of the most important forms of social learning
acquired by horses. It is a behavior that depends on one individual observing another’s
behavior and repeating it, therefore influencing the observer’s motivational state, eliciting
and implementing a response, and thus transferring behaviors between the herd members.
In most cases, the younger horses in the herd learn from the adult members through good
socialization and imitation of their behavior. In the HHO algorithm, this factor, noted i, has
been included and mathematically equated as in (33) and (34):
"
pN
! #
1 (iter −1)
∑
(iter,AGE)
⃗Im (iter,AGE) (iter −1)
= im X̂ j −X , AGE = γ (33)
pN j =1
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 14 of 26

(iter,AGE) (iter −1),AGE

Im = im × ωi (34)

If we consider that 10% (p parameter) of the horses are in the best position and that ith
(iter,AGE)
horse is moving towards the best positions X̂ of the average horses, then ⃗Im is the
movement vector of the ith horse toward X̂ position. ωi is a per-cycle reducing factor for
ith iteration.
• Defense mechanism (D):
Horses are social animals and have a prey status in the wild. For this reason, they
prefer to live in large areas with unobstructed visibility so they are always on the lookout
for attacks from potential predators and can alert the group. Essentially, the horse’s first
instinctive defense mechanism is escape, followed by fighting in other circumstances when
being hunted.
The defense system is present in the horse, whatever its age, and is manifested on
the one hand by instinctive flight from the source of danger when observing unfamiliar
behavior on the part of one or more members of the herd and, on the other hand, by the
fight against predators. The characterization of such a mechanism is assumed by a negative
factor d according to the following Equations (35) and (36):
"
qN
! #
1 (iter −1)
∑
(iter,AGE) (iter,AGE)
⃗m
D = −dm X̂ j − X (iter−1) , AGE = α, βandγ (35)
qN j =1

(iter,AGE) (iter −1),AGE

dm = dm × ωd (36)

Assuming that 20% (q parameter) of the horses are in the worst position and that ith horse
⃗m(iter,AGE)
is running away from the worst positions X̆ of the average horses, then D is the
escape vector of the ith horse toward X̆ position. ωd is a per-cycle reducing factor for
dth iteration.
• Roam (R):
When grazing on pastures, horses move extensively, around 16 km per 24 h on pasture.
Grass is the preferred feed for horses. The importance of grazing lies in the fact that it
brings many benefits: improving the horse’s health, as its digestive system is designed
to eat continuously, and satisfying its basic need for movement as it moves while eating.
In addition, group grazing stimulates competition between herd members to conquer
the most fertile grazing areas and compete to discover new zones. In contrast, when the
horses are inside the stables, the best design is to allow the horses to see each other. In
such circumstances, young horses roam more than mature horses. This behavior has been
simulated according to Equations (37) and (38):

⃗R(miter,AGE) = rm
(iter,AGE)
pX (iter−1) AGE = γandδ (37)

(iter,AGE) (iter −1),AGE

rm = rm × ωr (38)
(iter,AGE)
where ⃗Rm represents the ith horse random velocity vector of the ith horse and ωr is
(iter,AGE)
a per-cycle reducing factor for rm .

2.4.2. Proposed Chaotic HHO (CHHO) Algorithm

By analogy with the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, chaos theory has
been one of the great scientific revolutions of the 20th century since it first emerged, leading
to a multidisciplinary paradigm shift. Since the 1970s, this theory has made it possible
to study nonlinear phenomena governed by simple, deterministic laws whose behavior
becomes unpredictable under most conditions.
For nonlinear dynamic systems, chaos can be considered to be a deterministic random
process characterized by its significant sensitivity to initial conditions. Indeed, a significant
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 15 of 26

change can occur in the behavior of this type of system, even for a small deviation in the
initial values. Thus, the fine internal structure of chaos enables us to attribute important
dynamic characteristics to chaotic systems. These characteristics revolve specifically around
determinism, randomness, and sensitivity to initial conditions. In relation to optimization
algorithms, the aforementioned properties enable population diversity to be maintained,
and consequently, the chaotic systems succeed in improving the quality of the global
optimum search and escaping falling into a local optimum when dealing with complicated
problems.
The consideration of the chaos concept as a discrete-time dynamic system is expressed by:

cpik+1 = f (cpik ), n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . n (39)

where n is the map dimension. f (cpik ) is the function described by one of the maps and is
used to generate the chaotic model.
In the present work, ten uni-dimensional chaotic maps have been examined to enhance
the traditional HHO. For the considered maps, the main parameters and expressions are
given in Equations (40)–(50).
Taking into account the parameters a = 0.5 and b = 0.2, the expression of the Circle
map is established by (40) to:
 a 
x n +1 = x n + b − sin(2πxn ) mod (1) (40)
2π
The Logistic map is as in Equation (41). a = 0.4 is taken.

xn+1 = axn (1 − xn ) (41)

The Chebyshev map is expressed as in Equation (42).

xn+1 = cos(kcos−1 xn ) (42)

The Gauss/mouse map is expressed by:

( )
0, xn = 0
 
1 1 1
x n +1 = 1 , = − (43)
xn mod (1)
, x n ∈ ( 0, 1 ) x n mod ( 1 ) x n x n

The Piecewise map, when adopting P = 0.4, is as follows (44).

xn
 

 P , 0 ≤ xn < P 

 xn − P 

0.5 − P , P ≤ x n < 0.5 
x n +1 = 1− P − x n (44)

 0.5− P , 0.5 ≤ xn < 1 − P  
 1− x n 
P , 1 − P ≤ xn < 1
 

By fixing the parameter a = 0.7, the Iterative map can be defined following to the
Equation (45).
 
aπ
xn+1 = sin (45)
xn

The Singer map is expressed by Equation (46) when µ = 1.07.

 
xn+1 = µ 7.86xn − 23.31xn2 + 28.75xn3 − 13.302875xn4 (46)

The Tent Map is given by Equation (47).

( )
xn
0.7 , xn < 0.7
x n +1 = 10 (47)
3xn (1− xn )
, otherwise
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 16 of 26

The Sine map is represented as in Equation (48), with a = 4.

a4
x n +1 = (πxn ), f or (0 < a ≤ 4) (48)
sin
The Sinusoidal map is given by the relation (49).

xn+1 = axn2 sin(πxn ) (49)

When selecting x0 = 0.7 and a = 2.3, Equation (49) is rewritten as in (50):

xn+1 = sin(πxn ) (50)

After many tests, only the Tent Map is retained for the investigation of the CHHO perfor-
mance when utilized for the PVWPS control. A detailed description of the MPPT-based
CHHO is shown in the flowchart Figure 5.

Start

Initialize max iteration, number of Population

and parameters of CHHO

Generate Chaotic population

i=1

Output the duty cycle di according to i

i = i+1
Sense vpv and ipv then calculate ppv

Pbest-i =di
Update the horse positions based on the
i> n equations

iter =1 di < dmax && di > dmin

Specify dbest Output the di and measure the

corresponding vpv and ipv
i =1
Calculate the new PV power ppv-new

ppv-new > ppv

Pbest-i =di

i = i+1 i> n

Send dbest to the

iter = iter+1 iter > itermax
boost converter End

Figure 5. Flowchart of the MPPT-based CHHO.

At this point, the duty cycle of the DC–DC chopper is adjusted by the proposed
CHHO algorithm so that the PV generator operates at the point of maximum power, and
the maximum available power is therefore transferred to the DC bus before being converted
by the VSI to supply the motor and pump.

3. Simulation and Results Analysis

This section is devoted to unveiling the results of the simulations carried out and
their associated analyses. To highlight the consistency of the CHHO theory, three precisely
specified scenarios have been processed.
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 17 of 26

3.1. In Absence of Partial Shading

The main objective of the first study is to assess the performance of P&O, PSO, HHO,
and CHHO-based MPPT strategies. The evaluations were carried out for the first scenario
under standard test conditions (STC) with a solar irradiance of 1000 W/m2 , allowing a
maximum power (Ppv ) of 2000 W generated by the photovoltaic array. Figure 6 shows
the results of the generated PV power and the chopper output power (Pout ) obtained by
the MPPT techniques based on the algorithms P&O (Figure 6a), PSO (Figure 6b), HHO
(Figure 6c) and CHHO (Figure 6d).

102 P&O MPPT Method 102 102 PSO MPPT Method 102
15 15
20 20

solar irradiance(W/m 2)
solar irradiance W/m 2
15 10 15 10

Power (W)
Power (W)

10 10
102
1
19.8 5 5
Ppv =Pin Ppv =Pin
19.6
5 19.4 0.5 Pout 5 Pout
19.2
Ppvmax Ppvmax
19
0 Irradiance Irradiance
1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75
0 0 0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
102 HHO MPPT Method 102 102 CHHO MPPT Method 102
15 15
20 20
solar irradiance(W/m 2)

solar irradiance(W/m 2)
15 10 15 10
Power (W)
Power (W)

10 10

5 5
Ppv =Pin Ppv =Pin
5 Pout 5 Pout
Ppvmax Ppvmax
Irradiance Irradiance
0 0 0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time (s) Time (s)
(c) (d)
Figure 6. Photovoltaic power and inverter output power for different MPPT strategies at 1000 W/m2 .
(a) P and O MPPT Method. (b) PSO MPPT Method. (c) HHO MPPT Method. (d) Proposed MPPT
Method (CHHO).

At first glance, it can be seen that all MPPT algorithms satisfactorily maintain the
voltage close to the Maximum Power Point (MPP). However, by reducing the scale from
1985 to 2050 W (See Figure 7a,b), it becomes clearer to realize that the proposed strategy
achieves a remarkable efficiency of 98%. In descending order, it is closely followed by the
HHO (96%), PSO (95%), and P&O (94.5%) methods. In terms of processing speed, the
proposed MPPT control algorithm (CHHO) is outstanding, as it converges to the MPP in
less than 0.08 s, while the PSO and P&O algorithms require 0.7 s and slightly more than
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 18 of 26

0.08 s, respectively. Compared to the original HHO, the CHHO clearly demonstrates how
rapidly convergence has emerged as the superior technology for tracking the MPP.
Another point of interest for benchmarking purposes is that stabilization is directly
affected by voltage and current fluctuations at the converter terminals. In addition, MPPT
control using the proposed CHHO metaheuristic approach offers higher stability with
fewer power oscillations and, therefore, less stress on the switching devices of the DC–DC
converter. Furthermore, the proposed CHHO control appears to be more robust under
transient conditions than competitive techniques, especially PSO, which exhibits severe
power and voltage drops at the start of the MPPT search (Figure 6b).

Dynamic Error
102 102
Dynamic Error 2
10
3
20 PO MPPT Method 20 PO MPPT Method
PSO MPPT Method 2.5 PSO MPPT Method
HHO MPPT Method HHO MPPT Method
15 CHHO MPPT Method 15 CHHO MPPT Method
2
Error (W)

Error (W)
10 10 1.5

1
5 5
0.5
0 0
0

-5 -5 -0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 0.95 1 1.05
Time (s) Time s
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Comparison of results from the proposed MPPT method (CHHO) and the other methods.
(a) Dynamic error. (b) Zoom effect.

3.2. In Case of Partial Shading Conditions

To further confirm the performance and precision of the proposed MPPT algorithm
compared to the other three algorithms, P&O, PSO, and HHO, a second benchmarking
study was carried out under partial shading condition (PSC). In fact, at a constant tem-
perature of 25 °C, three of the eight photovoltaic modules used were subjected to three
irradiance levels distinct from those of the other ones assumed to be subject to the nominal
irradiance of 1000 W/m2 . The three levels of shading considered are 400 W/m2 for PV
module 1, 900 W/m2 for PV module 2 and 300 W/m2 for PV module 5 (See Figure 8).
Under these conditions, the P-V curve, illustrated in Figure 9, shows that the photo-
voltaic generator has three local maximum power points (LMPPs) of 1234.8 W, 805.9 W and
684.8 W and a single global MPP (GMPP) corresponding to the power 1422.3 W.
Figure 10 illustrates the dynamic response of the DC–DC converter output power
for the different MPPT strategies. Under the partial shading conditions, three algorithms
succeeded in finding the GMPP (Figure 10b–d). Referring to the reference GMPP value of
1422.3 W, the CHHO algorithm reached a power level of 1418.8 W, while the HHO and
PSO algorithms reached 1403.5 W and 1400.9 W, respectively. Consequently, it is asserted
that the CHHO algorithm outperformed the other methods in achieving the GMPP. On the
other hand, Figure 10a shows that the P&O algorithm became stuck in an LMPP of 802.1 W,
resulting in significant power losses.
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 19 of 26

Figure 8. Photovoltaic array configuration under PSC.

(I-V & P-V curves) 102

7
X 210.938 14
X 263.372
Y 1234.81
6 Y 1422.3
12
5
X 332.633
10
Current (A)

Power (W)

Y 805.918
4
8

3 X 384.603 6
Y 684.83
2 4

1 2

0 0
0 100 200 300 400
Volta e (V)
Figure 9. I-V and P-V characteristics of PV array under PSC.
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 20 of 26

102 P&O MPPT Method 10

2
102 PSO MPPT Method 102
15 12 15 12
X 0.64723
Y 1000 X 0.98535
10 Y 1403.24 10

solar irradiance(W/m 2)
solar irradiance(W/m 2)
X 0.778426
10 8 10 8
Y 900

Power (W)
Power (W)

X 1.12162 6 6
X 0.400146 Y 795.961
Y 400
5 4 5 4

X 0.483236
Y 300 Pout 2 Pout 2
Irradiance Irradiance
0 0 0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) (b)
102 HHO MPPT Method 102 102 CHHO MPPT Method 102
12 15 12
14
X 1.00573 X 0.99856
Y 1403.53 10 Y 1418.84 10
12
solar irradiance(W/m 2)

solar irradiance(W/m 2)
10 8 10 8
Power (W)
Power (W)

8
6 6
6
4 5 4
4

Pout 2 Pout 2
2
Irradiance Irradiance
0 0 0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (s) Time (s)

(c) (d)
Figure 10. Output power of the boost chopper for different MPPT strategies under PSC. (a) P
and O MPPT Method. (b) PSO MPPT Method. (c) HHO MPPT Method. (d) Proposed MPPT
Method (CHHO).

3.3. Validation of CHHO Dynamic Performance for the SPVWPS

Once the efficiency of the control techniques has been evaluated under standard test
conditionsand partial shading conditions, the next objective is to analyze their behavior
and performance under transient conditions. Figure 11 shows the results obtained by P&O
MPPT (Figure 11a), PSO MPPT (Figure 11b), HHO MPPT (Figure 11c) and the proposed
CHHO-MPPT (Figure 11d) methods under sudden irradiation variations: 700, 1000 and
800 W/m2 at instants of 0, 1.5 and 3 s, respectively. Despite significant variations in
solar irradiance, the strategies succeed, with varying degrees of success, in tracking the
maximum power point.
After examining the results of simulations of the solar pumping system using the four
MPPT techniques under varying irradiation conditions, careful comparisons were made
between these methods in terms of response time to reach maximum power and power
oscillations around the MPP. The results of the tests corresponding to 700, 1000, 800 W/m2
are presented in Table 4. Based on the observation of the cases reported there, CHHO-MPPT
can provide the least power oscillations and the best response time compared to other
MPPT methods, therefore improving system performance.
At this stage, the study was extended to cover the impact of CHHO control perfor-
mance on the behavior of the whole SPVWPS system. The simulation results shown in
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 21 of 26

Figure 12 represent the temporal evolutions in a dynamic regime of the power delivered
by the PVG, as well as the speed response, the electromagnetic torque of the motor, and
the pump flow rate when the proposed CHHO-MPPT is implemented under different
irradiation (400, 800, 1000, 800 and 500 W/m2 ). The variation period is set at 1s.
The temporal evolution of the maximum power extracted from the photovoltaic
generator is shown in Figure 12b. It can be seen that a decrease or increase in solar
irradiation leads to a decrease or increase, respectively, in the photovoltaic power output.
As a result, the maximum power point reached by the control system shifts to match the
new maximum power point associated with this new irradiation value. This means that
the CHHO algorithm can continuously determine the new optimum voltage for maximum
power. As with power, Figure 12d shows that the rotation speed takes on a value of
47.6 rad/s for an irradiance of 400 W/m2 before, in turn, it undergoes an increase, at time
t = 2 s, to reach a value of 156. A total of 434 rad/s, which corresponds to 1000 W/m2 , then
reaches a value of 73.43 rad/s at t = 4 s for sunshine of 500 W/m2 .
As for the flow of pumped water, its value reaches 1.6 × 10−4 m3 /s, before increasing
to 5.2 × 10−4 m3 /s after 2 s; then 2.4 × 10−4 m3 /s after 4 s. This variation is necessarily
imposed by the increase or decrease in the value of the irradiance (see Figure 12f).

102 P&O MPPT Method 102 102 PSO MPPT Method 102
15 15
20 20
X 1.92857
X 2.90617
Y 1913.61

solar irradiance(W/m 2)
solar irradiance(W/m 2)

Y 1870.01
15 10 15 10
X 3.52242 X 3.33417
Power (W)
Power (W)

Y 1534.88 Y 1526.96
X 0.908821 X 1.45161
Y 1347.96 Y 1330.81
10 10

5 5
Ppv =Pin Ppv =Pin
5 Pout 5 Pout
Ppvmax Ppvmax
Irradiance Irradiance
0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) (b)
102 HHO MPPT Method 102 102 CHHO MPPT Method 102
15 15
20 20
X 1.875 X 1.90871
Y 1925.63 Y 1961.76
solar irradiance(W/m 2)

solar irradiance(W/m 2)

15 10 15 X 3.38407 10
X 3.51042
Y 1568.46
Power (W)

Power (W)

Y 1539.09
X 0.496164 X 1.28324
Y 1349.27 Y 1361.6
10 10

5 5
Ppv =Pin Ppv =Pin
5 Pout 5 Pout
Ppvmax Ppvmax
Irradiance Irradiance
0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Time (s) Time (s)

(c) (d)
Figure 11. Photovoltaic power and output power of the chopper for different MPPT strategies under
variable solar radiation. (a) P and O MPPT Method. (b) PSO MPPT Method. (c) HHO MPPT Method.
(d) Proposed MPPT Method (CHHO).
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 22 of 26

Table 4. Comparison results for P&O, PSO, HHO, and CHHO techniques during variable irradiance.

MPPT Techniques
Irradiance (W/m2 ) Features
P&O PSO HHO Proposed CHHO
Response Time (s) 00.70 00.35 00.08 00.04
700
Power oscillations (w) 16.00 22.000 10.00 07.00
Response Time (s) 00.10 00.70 00.035 00.02
1000
Oscillations Power (w) 23.00 33.00 18.00 13.75
Response Time (s) 00. 16 00.07 00.04 0.025
8000
Oscillations Power (w) 18.00 26.00 14.00 08.50

102 Solar radiation 103 Photovoltaic power

12
2
10 X 2.19018
X 2.29911 Y 1951.73
Solar radiation (W/m2 )

Y 1000
8 1.5

Power (W)
6
1
X 4.55357 X 4.508
4
Y 500 Y 921.364
X 0.662202
Y 400 0.5 X 0.570641
2 Y 600.169

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) (b)
101 Torque 102 Motor speed
2
Te 1.5 X 2.99315
Y 156.434
Tpump
1.5
X 2.76099
Rotor speed (rad/s)

Y 11.0043
Torque (N.m)

1
1

0.5 X 4.87671
Y 73.4365
0.5
X 4.80769 X 0.835617
0 X 0.721154 Y 2.42899 Y 47.641
Y 1.01761

-0.5 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s) Time (s)

(c) (d)
10-4 Water flow
6

5 X 2.96143
Y 0.00052771
Water flow (m3/s)

X 4.93113
2
Y 0.000247712
X 0.895317
1 Y 0.000160802

0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)

(e) (f)
Figure 12. Simulation result of the Photovoltaic Water Pumping System using DTC and the proposed
MPPT Method. (a) Solar irradiance trajectory. (b) PV power trajectory. (c) Electromagnetic torque
and the pump torque. (d) Motor speed trajectory. (e) Flux circular Trajectory. (f) Water flow.
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 23 of 26

By examining Figure 12c, it is obvious that the torque Tpump reaches a value of 1.01 N·m
before rising at t = 2 s (11 N·m), then 4 s (2.42 N·m). The developed electromagnetic torque
Te , in turn, perfectly follows the pump’s resistive torque Tpump at each change in irradiance.
Otherwise, the stator flux vector follows its reference perfectly and describes a quasi-
circular trajectory and only negligible flux fluctuations are registered (see Figure 12e).

4. Conclusions
This paper proposed a new control system for PVWPS. The studied system integrates a
PV generator supplying an induction motor and a centrifugal pump via an MPPT-controlled
DC–DC chopper and DC-AC voltage source inverter responsible for the DTC control of the
IM. In particular, the MPPT process has been ensured by a newly proposed CHHO-based
approach under partial shading conditions and fast weather-changing regimes. The MPPT
task has been treated as an optimization problem, and the proposed CHHO-based method
has been compared with the P&O, PSO, and the original HHO methods. The results of
the statistical simulation confirm that the proposed CHHO-based algorithm has excellent
advantages compared to other benchmark algorithms in terms of accuracy, reliability,
and convergence speed. Especially for PVWPS applications, the whole control system is
promising and can be a valuable tool for optimizing the use of AI and metaheuristics to
control renewable energy in the promotion of sustainable agriculture, as it achieves better
performance in tackling the nonlinear equations of the investigated maximum power point
tracking problem. This study can help companies, governments, and nongovernmental
organizations better take into account the variability and sustainability of groundwater
resources in the optimal sizing and monitoring of PVWPS.
In the continuity of this work, it would be worthwhile to explore and improve the
CHHO and other metaheuristic algorithms for further benefits in this sustainable applica-
tion and other renewable energy and power systems.

Author Contributions: All authors (R.A. and S.S.) contributed equally. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Scientific Sheikh Ali Mohamed Al-Jumaia Chair on
Sustainable Development in Agricultural Societies at the University of Ha’il—Saudi Arabia through
Project Number SCR-22 104.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the Editors and Reviewers for their valuable and insightful
comments that led to improve the sent version.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

RERs Renewable Energy Resources

PV Photovoltaic
KSA Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
P&O Perturb and Observe
PSO Particle Swarm Optimizer
HHO Horse Herd Optimization
CHHO chaotic Horse Herd Optimization
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
MPP Maximum Power Point
MFO Moth Flame Optimization
EGWO Extended Grey Wolf Optimizer
SMO Spider Monkey Optimization
HBO Honey Badger Optimizer
HPO Hunter Pray Optimizer
Mathematics 2024, 12, 594 24 of 26

AOA Arithmetic Optimization Algorithm

PVG PV Generator
IM Induction Motor
DTC Direct Torque Control
VSI Voltage Source Inverter
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
MPP Maximum Power Point
SPVWPS Solar photovoltaic water pumping system
CO2 Carbon dioxide
VSS-P&O Variable Step Size Perturb and Observe
VSS-INC Variable Step Size Incremental conductance
KF Kalman filter
SPC-FOCV Semi Pilot Cell-based Fractional Open Circuit Voltage
PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
SVM Space Vector Modulation
RBFNN Radial basis function neural network
SEPIC Single-ended primary inductor converter
DC Direct current
BLDC Brushless DC
VSI Voltage source inverter
THD Total harmonic distortion
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
STC Standard test conditions

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