Vectors and the Dot Product

MAT1052
Nermine El Sissi
Lecture 6 Objectives
 Describe a surface defined by a given equation.
 Define what a vector is.
 Perform operations on vectors.
 Find the dot product of two vectors.
 Find the angle between two vectors.
 Find the projection of one vector onto another.
From 2D to 3D
 In Calculus I, we used to do the geometry of the 2-dimensional space;
namely the geometry of the paper.
 For the geometry of the 2-dimensional spaces, we need two axes, the x-
axis and the y-axis, perpendicular to each other.
 When we started sketching in the two-dimensional space, we started
with describing a point; which is uniquely determined by the ordered
pair (a, b).
 To plot the point (a, b), we had to move a units in the direction of x-
axis, and b units in the direction of y-axis.
 https://www.geogebra.org/m/GVDNb7Wf (This is a nice illustration of
how to plot points in two-dimensional space)

(3,2)
 We then started sketching graphs (lines and curves).
 The algebraic description of these graphs is given by
a function in a single variable y=f(x).
 We learned about the rate of change and the integral
of these functions.
 In this course, instead of doing the geometry of the
paper, we will explore the geometry of the room; that
is the 3-dimensional space.
 The 3-Dimensional Space
 In the three-dimensional case, as expected, we will need three axes; namely
x-, y-, and z-axes. We have no problem with the x- and y-axes. It is the z-
axis that we need to know how to sketch.
 Usually we think of the x- and y-axes as being horizontal and the z-axis as
being vertical. We determine the z-axis by the right-hand rule. More
specifically, if you curl your right hand from the positive direction of the x-
axis to the positive direction of the y-axis, your thumb will be pointing to
the positive direction of the z-axis.
 Points
 In the three-dimensional space, we face a visualization challenge as we are
trying to sketch a 3-dimensional space on a 2-dimensional sheet of paper.
 Similar to the 2-dimensional case, we have to start sketching a point.
 A point in a 3-dimensional space is described as an ordered triple of
numbers; (a, b, c). We have to walk a units in the direction of x, b units in the
direction of y and c units in the direction of z.
 https://www.geogebra.org/m/rA4fWtKH
(this is an illustration of how to plot a point in
3D space, try it out!)
 Planes
 Question: In two-dimensional space, how many planes do
we have?
 Answer: One (the paper itself)
 How about in three-dimensional space?
 Floor is a plane
 Wall is a plane
 Ceiling is a plane
 Infinitely many planes.
Let’s Play a Game!
 Consider a two-dimensional space and a three-
dimensional space. We will take an equation from
Calculus I for which we know its geometric description
and try to find out what it describes in the three-
dimensional space.
Equation Description in 2D Description in 3D

𝑥𝑥 = 0 y-axis 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 : 𝑥𝑥 = 0

{ 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 : 𝑥𝑥 = 0} That is 𝑥𝑥 = 0, but y and z
That is 𝑥𝑥 = 0 and y can can take any value.
take any value. yz-plane
𝑦𝑦 = 0 x-axis 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 : 𝑦𝑦 = 0
{ 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 : 𝑦𝑦 = 0} That is y= 0, but x and z
That is 𝑦𝑦 = 0, and x can can take any value.
take any value. xz-plane

𝑧𝑧 = 0 Not Applicable 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 : 𝑧𝑧 = 0

That is 𝑧𝑧 = 0, but x and y
can take any value.
xy-plane
 𝑦𝑦 = 0 𝑥𝑥 = 0,
Move freely on the Move freely on the
x and z axes. y and z axes.

𝑧𝑧 = 0
Floor, move freely
on the x and y axes.
 How about sketching planes in general?
 To sketch 𝑧𝑧 = 3, we note that we can’t move upward or
downward, implying that this plane is parallel to the
floor, i.e., the xy-plane.
 https://www.geogebra.org/m/AnCPnuMP
 How do we describe the equation of the x-axis in the
three-dimensional space?
𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 : 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑧𝑧 = 0 .
 The equation of the y-axis in the three-dimensional
space is similarly given by:
𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 : 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑧𝑧 = 0
 Lastly, the equation of the z-axis in the three-
dimensional space is :
{ 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 : 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 = 0}
 Let’s Play More!
Equation Description in 2D Description in 3D

𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 : 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1 S= 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 : 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1

The equation of the circle There is no restriction on z.
whose radius is 1 and centered The intersection between the
at 0,0 . surface S and the xy-plane (z=0) is
2D and this equation describes a
circle.
The intersection between the
surface S with any plane parallel to
the xy-plane (z= constant) is a 2D
and the equation describes a
circle.
So, S is a surface whose
intersection with any plane
parallel to the xy-plane is a circle.
To sketch the surface, we join all
the circles by lines.
Equation Graph in 2D Graph in 3D

𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1 Cylinder whose axis is the

z-axis and radius is 1.
Distance in 3D
 In a two-dimensional space, the distance between two
points 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 and (𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) is
𝐷𝐷 = 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 2 + 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 2
 Generalizing the formula for 3D, we have the distance
between two points 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑧𝑧1 and (𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 , 𝑧𝑧2 ) to be
𝐷𝐷 = 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 2 + 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 2 + 𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1 2
 Now that we have the concept of the distance in 3D
space, we can talk about another famous geometric
object in this space.
 Do you have a guess?
The Sphere
 Recall that a circle is a geometric object on which every point
is lying at a fixed distance r from a point called the center
(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) that is,
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2 + 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑏𝑏 2 = 𝑟𝑟
which yields the equation of the circle
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2 + 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑏𝑏 2 = 𝑟𝑟 2 .
 In 3D, the geometric object on which every point is lying at a
fixed distance r from a point called the center (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐) is
called a sphere and given by;
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2 + 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑏𝑏 2 + 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝑟𝑟
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2 + 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑏𝑏 2 + 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝑟𝑟 2
 Example
 What does the equation
𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 4𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧 2 − 6𝑧𝑧 = 14
describe?
 Solution: The trick to solve this question is to complete the square.
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 4 4 6 6
𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 + − + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 4𝑦𝑦 + − + 𝑧𝑧 2 − 6𝑧𝑧 + − = 14
2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑥𝑥 + 1 2 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2 2 + 𝑧𝑧 − 3 2 = 28

 So, the equation represents a sphere whose radius is 28 and centered at

−1, −2,3 .
Vectors
 Imagine you are stranded in the
middle of the sea in a yacht.
 How will you describe your
position to the marine traffic
officer?
 A quick and easy answer is the
GPS system in the yacht.
 But how does it work?
 The GPS uses a mathematical
object, called vectors, to
determine the position, speed
and direction of your yacht.
 So due to math, you will make it
safe to the shore!
Vectors Are Everywhere!
 The use of vectors are not limited to determining the
location of your yacht.
 Vectors are mathematical objects that appear
whenever we are interested in investigating any
physical quantity that has both magnitude and
direction, such as
 Electric and magnetic fields
 The flow of air over an airplane wing,
 The velocity and acceleration of an object
 The force exerted on an object.
Geometry of Vectors
 A vector is a quantity that has both 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑣𝑣
One vector has infinitely many
 Magnitude (length) representations.

 Direction
 Geometrically, we represent a vector by an arrow, whose length is the
magnitude of the vector and direction is given by the direction of the arrow.
 More specifically, a vector is completely determined by 2 points:
 An initial point (tail) (𝐴𝐴)
 A terminal point (head) (𝐵𝐵).
 We denote the vector from 𝐴𝐴 to 𝐵𝐵 by 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, or simply by 𝒖𝒖 (in bold).
 Two vectors are equal, if they have the same direction and magnitude,
we write 𝒖𝒖 = 𝒗𝒗.
 In general quantities described by real numbers and no direction are called
scalars.
 ONLY one vector is an exception, namely the zero vector, denoted by 𝟎𝟎: it has
length 0 and no direction.
Arithmetic of Vectors

 We know how to do arithmetic on real numbers, that

is add, subtract and multiply.
 Question: Can we generalize these operations for
vectors?
Vectors Addition

TO UNDERSTAND VECTOR SUPPOSE YOU ARE MOVING

ADDITION, WE FIRST BORROW A FROM CITY A TO CITY B, THEN
CONCEPT FROM PHYSICS TO YOU DECIDE TO GO TO CITY C.
VISUALLY UNDERSTAND THIS WHAT IS THE TOTAL
ADDITION OPERATION ON DISPLACEMENT?
VECTORS.
Answer: 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴.
This is what we call, the triangular rule.
Definition of Vector Addition
Scalar Multiplication
 We know how to add two vectors geometrically.
 What about if we multiply a vector by a real number?
 Observations:
 The vector 2𝒗𝒗 is of the same direction as 𝒗𝒗, but its magnitude is
doubled.
 The vector −𝒗𝒗 has the same magnitude as the magnitude of 𝒗𝒗 and
its direction is the opposite direction of 𝒗𝒗
Remarks:
• When multiplying a vector by a scalar:
• The direction is either the one of the original vector, or the opposite of the
vector.
• The magnitude is either magnified or shrunk, depending on the value of |𝑐𝑐|.
• If 𝑐𝑐 > 1, the magnitude is magnified.
• If 𝑐𝑐 < 1, the magnitude is shrunk.
Subtraction of vectors
 To define subtraction of vectors geometrically, we will first view
another geometric way of vectors Addition.
 Complete the triangle on the left into a parallelogram. As a result, the
sum of the two vectors 𝒖𝒖 and 𝒗𝒗 is the diagonal of the parallelogram
with 𝒖𝒖 and 𝒗𝒗 having the same initial point. This process of adding two
vectors is called the Parallelogram Law.

The Triangle Law The Parallelogram Law

 The Parallelogram Law can be used to describe subtraction of vectors.
 Note that 𝒖𝒖 − 𝒗𝒗 can be viewed as 𝒖𝒖 + (−𝒗𝒗), where −𝒗𝒗 has the same
magnitude as the magnitude of 𝒗𝒗 and its direction is the opposite
direction of 𝒗𝒗.
 Thus, from the Parallelogram Law, we can view the difference as the
following diagonal.
 The Algebra of Vectors
 Recall that a vector is determined by its magnitude and its direction.
 Consequently, a vector has infinitely many representations, which is not practical.
 Goal: Find an optimum representation of a vector.
 Recall: Any vector is determined by two points:
 An initial point (tail)
 A terminal point (head)
 Once you fix the initial point to be the origin, then the vector is only determined by its
terminal point.
 This representation of the vectors 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 , and 𝑂𝑂𝐵𝐵
from the origin to the points 𝐴𝐴 2,3 , and 𝐵𝐵(6,1)
is called the position vector of the point 𝑨𝑨
and the position vector of the point 𝑩𝑩, respectively.
 Generally, if the terminal point of a vector is 𝐴𝐴(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏), then we
write the position vector of the point 𝐴𝐴 as 𝒂𝒂 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 =< 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 >.
 In the three-dimensional space, the vector 𝒂𝒂 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 =< 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 > is
the position vector of the point 𝑃𝑃(𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 ).

The position vector and

the vector 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 are equivalent.
Example 1
 Find the position vector representation for 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 with initial point 𝐴𝐴(1,1,1)
and 𝐵𝐵 3,4,2 .
 Solution:
𝒂𝒂 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =< 3 − 1, 4 − 1, 2 − 1 > = < 2,3,1 >.
 Now, can you guess what the magnitude or length of the vector 𝒗𝒗?
 Think of the distance two points, namely the initial point 0,0,0 and the
terminal point 2,3,1 .
 Thus, we can use the distance formula as follows:
𝒂𝒂 = 22 + 32 + 12 = 14.
The Magnitude of a Vector
More on the Algebra of Vectors
Example 2
 Let 𝒖𝒖 =< 4,0,3 > and 𝒗𝒗 =< −2,1,5 >.

 𝒖𝒖 = 42 + 02 + 32 = 25 = 5.

 𝒖𝒖 + 𝒗𝒗 =< 4,0,3 >+< −2,1,5 > =< 2,1,8 >.

 5𝒖𝒖 − 3𝒗𝒗 = 5 < 4,0,3 > −3 < −2,1,5 > = < 20,0,15 > − < −6,3,15 >
= < 26, −3,0 >.

 𝒖𝒖 + 𝒗𝒗 = | < 2,1,8 > | = 22 + 12 + 82 = 69.

Example 3
 Find the vector 𝒖𝒖 which is parallel to the position vector < 3,2,1 > and
whose magnitude is 7.
 Solution: We are given
 𝒖𝒖 = 7
 𝑐𝑐 < 3,2,1 > = 𝒖𝒖, where 𝑐𝑐 is a scalar (since the vector is parallel to <
3,2,1 >.)
 This implies that 𝒖𝒖 = |𝑐𝑐 < 3,2,1 > | = 7.
 The problem boils down to solving for the scalar 𝑐𝑐.
|𝑐𝑐 < 3,2,1 > | = 𝑐𝑐 9 + 4 + 1 = 𝑐𝑐 14 = 7.
7
 Thus, 𝑐𝑐 = .
14
 In conclusion,
7 21 14 7
𝒖𝒖 = 𝑐𝑐 < 3,2,1 > = < 3,2,1 > = , , .
14 14 14 14
 Unit Vectors
 A unit vector is a vector of length 1.
2 2 1
 For example, the vector , , is a unit vector since its magnitude is
3 3 3
1 (check).
 Given any vector 𝒗𝒗 ≠ 𝟎𝟎, then the unit vector 𝒖𝒖 that has the same direction as 𝒗𝒗
is
𝒗𝒗
𝒖𝒖 =
𝒗𝒗

Reason: Since 𝒖𝒖 is in the same direction as 𝒗𝒗, then 𝒖𝒖 = 𝑐𝑐𝒗𝒗, where 𝑐𝑐 is a positive
scalar.
Furthermore, we are looking for a vector whose magnitude is 1, thus,
1
𝒖𝒖 = 𝑐𝑐𝒗𝒗 = 𝑐𝑐 𝒗𝒗 = 1 ⇒ 𝑐𝑐 = .
𝒗𝒗
𝒗𝒗
Thus, 𝒖𝒖 =
𝒗𝒗
Example 4
 Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector
2, −1, −2 .

 Solution: The given vector has length

2, −1, −2 = 4 + 1 + 4 = 9 = 3.
 Thus, the unit vector with the same direction is
2 1 2
,− ,− .
3 3 3
The Most Important Unit
Vectors
 In the three-dimensional space, there are three vectors that play an
important role as well:

𝐢𝐢 = 1,0,0 𝐣𝐣 = 0,1,0 𝐤𝐤 = 0,0,1

 The vectors 𝐢𝐢, 𝐣𝐣, and 𝐤𝐤 are called the standard vectors.
 Each one of the vectors 𝐢𝐢, 𝐣𝐣, and 𝐤𝐤 has length 1 and each is parallel to
the 𝑥𝑥-, 𝑦𝑦-, and 𝑧𝑧- axes, respectively and pointing in the positive
direction.
 We have a similar definition in the two-dimensional space.

𝐢𝐢 = 1,0 𝐣𝐣 = 0,1
 Why Are the Standard Vectors
Important?
Let 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 , then we can write is in terms of the standard
vectors. More specifically,

𝑢𝑢 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑎𝑎, 0,0 + 0, 𝑏𝑏, 0 + 0,0, 𝑐𝑐

= 𝑎𝑎 1,0,0 + 𝑏𝑏 0,1,0 + 𝑐𝑐 0,0,1
= 𝑎𝑎𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏𝒋𝒋 + 𝑐𝑐𝒌𝒌
In other words, any vector 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 , with no
restriction on 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 can be written in terms of 𝒊𝒊, 𝒋𝒋, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝒌𝒌.
The Dot Product
 We have defined the sum, difference and scalar multiplication of the
vectors.
 We have seen that when we add, subtract or multiply a vector by a
scalar, we get a vector.
 However, we are missing one operation, namely multiplication of
vectors.
 Question: When we multiply a vector by a vector, should we get a
number or a vector?
 Luckily, we have both.
 The first will yield a scalar: the dot product.
 The second will yield another vector: the cross product.
 We will begin by exploring the dot product.
 The Algebraic Description of the Dot
Product

Example: The dot product of the 𝑢𝑢 = 2,3,1 and 𝑣𝑣 = −1,0,4 is:

𝑢𝑢 � 𝑣𝑣 = 2,3,1 � −1,0,4 = 2 −1 + 3 0 + 1 4 = 2
 Properties of the Dot Product
The Dot Product Multiplication of Numbers
(𝒖𝒖, 𝒗𝒗, 𝒘𝒘 are vectors and 𝒄𝒄 is a scalar)

𝒖𝒖 � 𝟎𝟎 = 0 = 𝟎𝟎 � 𝒖𝒖 1�0=0=0�1

𝒖𝒖 � 𝒗𝒗 = 𝒗𝒗 � 𝒖𝒖 1�2= 2�1

𝒖𝒖 � 𝒖𝒖 = 𝒖𝒖 2 2 � 2 = −2 � −2 = 4 = 2 2 = −2 2

𝒖𝒖 � 𝒗𝒗 + 𝒘𝒘 = 𝒖𝒖 � 𝒗𝒗 + 𝒖𝒖 � 𝒘𝒘 2 � 3+4 =2�3+2�4

𝑐𝑐𝒖𝒖 � 𝒗𝒗 = 𝑐𝑐 𝒖𝒖 � 𝒗𝒗 = 𝒖𝒖 � (𝑐𝑐𝒗𝒗) 2�3 �4= 2� 3�4

To justify these properties, use the definition of the dot product. Try it!
 The Geometric Description of
the Dot Product
 How can we represent the dot product of two vectors using the magnitude
and direction?
 If 𝜃𝜃 is the angle between two vectors , 𝒂𝒂 and 𝒃𝒃, then

𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = 𝒂𝒂 𝒃𝒃 cos 𝜃𝜃

 The fact above gives us a way to find the angle between any two vectors.
 What happens if the angle between two vectors is orthogonal (i.e., the
angle between those is 90 degrees)?
𝜋𝜋
 Since cos = 0, then 𝒖𝒖 � 𝒗𝒗 = 0.
2
 Example 5
 Find the angle between 1,2,3 and −1, −1,4 .
 Solution:
 We first find the magnitude of both vectors:
1,2,3 = 14
−1, −1,4 = 18
 We find the dot product:
1,2,3 � −1, −1,4 = −1 − 2 + 12 = 9
 Therefore,
1,2,3 � −1, −1,4 9
cos 𝜃𝜃 = =
1,2,3 −1, −1,4 14 18
 To find 𝜃𝜃, use arccosine:
9
𝜃𝜃 = arccos
14 18
Projections
 Given two vectors 𝒖𝒖 and 𝒗𝒗, where 𝑢𝑢 = 1, we express 𝒗𝒗 as
the sum of two vectors,
 the first is parallel to 𝒖𝒖, denoted by 𝒗𝒗parallel .
 the second is perpendicular to 𝒖𝒖, denoted by 𝒗𝒗perp .
 Recall that to determine a vector completely, we need the
magnitude and direction:
 we have the direction namely 𝒖𝒖.
 we are only missing the magnitude.
To find the magnitude, we use the geometric description of the dot product.
More specifically,
𝒖𝒖 � 𝒗𝒗
𝒗𝒗parallel = 𝒗𝒗 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 𝒗𝒗 = 𝒖𝒖 � 𝒗𝒗.
𝒖𝒖 𝒗𝒗
Thus, 1

𝒗𝒗parallel = (𝒖𝒖 � 𝒗𝒗)𝒖𝒖

Once we find 𝒗𝒗parallel , it is easy to find 𝒗𝒗perp using

the geometric representation of vectors subtraction:

𝒗𝒗perp = 𝒗𝒗 − 𝒗𝒗parallel
 Example 6
 Given 𝑣𝑣 = 1,1,2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢 = −2,3,1 , find 𝒗𝒗parallel and 𝒗𝒗perp .
 Solution:
 Step 1: Check that 𝒖𝒖 = 1, if not make it a unit vector.
𝒖𝒖 = 14 (it’s not a unit vector)
We need to find a unit vector in the direction of 𝒖𝒖:
𝒖𝒖 2 3 1
𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 = = − , , .
𝒖𝒖 14 14 14
 Step 2: Find 𝒗𝒗parallel .
2 3 1 2 3 1
𝒗𝒗parallel = 𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 � 𝒗𝒗 𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 = − , , � 1,1,2 − , ,
14 14 14 14 14 14
6 9 3
= − , , .
14 14 14
 Step 3, Find 𝒗𝒗perp .
6 9 3
𝒗𝒗 − 𝒗𝒗parallel = 1,1,2 − − , , .
14 14 14