There are two common types of research: qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitative research collects non-numerical data to understand or explain concepts, opinions, situations, or
experiences. It digs into the deeper explanations of how's and why’s

Data are gathered mainly through narrations, observations,

anecdotes, written literature, and interviews

Quantitative research is focused on analysis of numerical data and form conclusions from samples drawn form the
population.
Quantitative research can also predict the future behavior of a phenomena based on existing data.

Data can be extracted from scales and instruments where numerical where numerical rating is needed.

Characteristics of Quantitative
Research
o It contains measurable variables
o It uses standardized research instruments such as test, scales, and surveys
o It generalizes conclusions from samples drawn from a population
o It presents data in tabular, graphical, or figure form
o It uses statistics to analyze data
o It is objective and logical
o It follows the scientific method

Types of Quantitative Research

1.Experimental Research Design

One of the several forms of scientific inquiry employed to identify the cause-and-effect relation between two or more
variables and to assess the magnitude of the effects) produced (Lavraakas,2008)
o Pre-Experimental Research - A group of various groups, are kept under observation after implementing
factors of cause and effect. This type of experimental research is done if further investigation in needed for
these particular group.
o Quasi-Experimental Research - A research design that seeks to find relationships between independent and
dependent variables after an action or event has already occurred (Salkind, 2007). The independent variable
is manipulated but the assignment of participants in a group is not random
o True-Experimental Research - According to Salkind (2010), true experimental research design refers to any
randomized experiment. It has the highest control in an experiment; thus, producing a higher degree of
validity in results. It relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis, making it the most
accurate form of research/
2. Non-Experimental Research - This research design does not involve manipulation of variables to yield results. This
type basically describes the characteristics of a phenomena. Descriptive and correlational studies fall under non-
experimental research.
 Descriptive Research - In a descriptive research design, the researcher's aims is to describe the sample
and seek to answer the question "what" rather than "why"
 Correlational Research - A non-experimental research design strategy which enables researchers to
determine the relationship between two or more variables.

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

STRENGTHS
o It is objective
o It uses statistical testing
o It is real and unbiased
o Quantitative studies are replicable
o Quantitative studies can be used as follow up research study for qualitative studies

WEAKNESSES
o Quantitative Research requires a large number of respondents
o It is costly
o Respondents are taken as a group, not a individuals
 o Critical issues need opinion, and not just numerical ratings
o Monitoring and data gathering is difficult

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Definition of Quantitative Research
Expressions like numerical forms, objective thinking, statistical methods, and measurement signal the existence of
quantitative research. One word that reflects the true nature of this type of research is numerical. This term,
numerical, is a descriptive word pertaining to or denoting a number or symbol to express how many, how much, or
what rank things are or have in this world. Expressing meaning through numerals or a set of symbols indicates
specificity, particularity, or exactness of something.
Quantitative research makes you focus your mind on specific things by means of statistics that involve collection and
study of numerical data. Thus, to give the basic meaning of quantitative research is to say that research is a way of
making any phenomenon or any sensory experience clearer or more meaningful by gathering and examining facts
and information about such person, thing, place, or event appealing to your senses. You use mathematical
operations of addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication to study and express relationships between quantities
or magnitudes shown by numbers or symbols. Involving measurements and amounts, quantitative research seeks to
find answers to questions starting with how many, how much, how long, to what extent, and the like. Answers to
these questions come in numerals, percentages, and fractions, among others. (Suter 2012; Russell 2013)

STANDARDS QUALITATIVEQUANTITATIVE
Mental Results Exists in the
survey of from social physical world
reality interactions

Cause effect Explained Revealed by

relationships by people's automatic
objective Description
desires of
circumstance
s or
conditions
Researcher' Subjective; Objective;
s sometimes least
involvement personally involvement
with the engaged by the
object or researcher
subject of
the study

Expression Verbal Numerals,

of data, data language statistics
analysis, and (words,
findings visuals,
objects)

Research Takes Plans all

plans place as research
the aspects
research before
proceeds collecting
gradually data

Behavior Desires to Control or

toward preserve manipulation
research the natural of research
aspects / setting of conditions by
conditions research the
features researcher

Obtaining Multiple Scientific

 knowledge methods method

Purpose Makes social Evaluates

intentions objective
understandable sand
examines
cause-effect
relationships

Data- Thematic codal Mathematically

analysis ways, based
technique competence- methods
based

Style of Personal, lacks Impersonal,

expression formality scientific, or
systematic

Sampling More inclined Random

technique to purposive sampling as
sampling or the most
use of chosen preferred
samples based
on some
criteria

The Introductory Chapter of the Research Paper The introductory chapter contains the background of the study, the
statement of the problem, significance of the study, and delimitation of the study.

A. Background of the Study

According to Sachdev (2018), the background of the study forms the first section of a research. It justifies the need
for conducting the study and summarizes what the study aims to achieve.

There are four main questions that you need to answer in order to come up with a good background of the study:
1. What is known about the broad topic that you chose?
2. What are the gaps or missing links that need to be addressed?
3. What is the significance of addressing those gaps?
4. What are the rationale and hypothesis of your study?

Sachdev (2018) also gives a few tips on how to avoid making mistakes when writing the background of the study:
1. Do not write a background that is either too long or too short.
2. Do not be ambiguous.
3. Do not discuss unrelated themes.
4. Do not be disorganized.

B. Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The Scope and Delimitation of the Study discusses to what extent the study will be explored, and what are the
parameters of the study. It also discusses variables that will not be considered in the conduct of the research.
Limitations and delimitations: are they the same? Researchers often use these terms interchangeably; and it is
important to emphasize that there is a difference between these two. They may be similar in a way, but they are not
the same.

Formulating the Research Title

Beginning researchers sometimes have a general tendency to think that they should work on the titles first. Actually,
the titles must be formulated only when the topic and the direction of the study is already clearly identified.
The research title is the very first thing that potential readers would see, and hence, would direct their interest
whether they would read the study further, or skip it at all.
Therefore, it is important to have a research title which does not only contain all the important elements of the
research, but also interesting enough for potential readers to look into.
When coming up with the research title, some considerations to remember are the following:
 1. It should highlight, most if not all, the variables being considered.
2. It should specifically mention the participants on the sample population that you use (ex: Grade 12 STEM
students of a Public School in Quezon City); and
3. - It should meet the number of words allowable (titles are usually at around 10 to 15
words only).

In formulating your research titles, avoid using terms which are vague and confusing.
The title should be "catchy" and "out of the ordinary." However, when attempting to use"catchy" titles, also
consider the target audience of the study, as there are instances when simpler titles sound better than
creative ones.

Definition of Framework
Basically, when you think of a framework, you would usually visualize something essential in supporting the integrity
of a structure. Such is also the case when it comes to research. A framework, in definition, is a basic structure
underlying a system, concept, or text (Oxford Languages, n.d.).
The research framework, whether theoretical or conceptual, serves as the necessary foundation on which you base
your research. It refers to the overall structure which helps shape the entirety of your research project.
Researchers often use either of the two main concepts when it comes to the research framework: (a) the theoretical
framework and (b) the conceptual framework.
Find out the differences between conceptual framework and theoretical framework in the chart that follows.

Conceptual Framework Theoretical Framework

It is more about the approach that a researcher takes in It is developed from existing theory/ theories.
answering a research question.

It is derived from concepts.

It is derived from theory.

A conceptual framework is composed of several By itself, one theory alone can serve as a theoretical
concepts; although, a conceptual framework may also framework.
include a theoretical framework.

Conceptual frameworks identify factors influencing a A theoretical framework arises from outcomes beyond a
particular field, e.g., exploration of "masquerade" single study, based on one or more theories, e.g.
mimicry in animals based on phenomena, such as Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.
protective mimicry, crypsis, and aposematism.

A. Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of the study refers to the larger assumptions about the topic which the researcher wants to
explore. From the term itself, this type of framework focuses on the use of "theories" that researchers can use to
explain a certain phenomenon Likewise, it provides a large, overarching structure of ideas.

B. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework refers to more specific set of ideas which a researcher wants to study, unlike the
theoretical framework which ventures on more general set of ideas. It shows how the variables in the study are
interrelated with one another and visually presents it in a model or diagram (which is referred to as the paradigm of
the study). This model is then explained narratively for the full understanding of the readers.

Four Steps in Writing the Conceptual Framework

1. Identify the important variables in the study.
2. Think of how the variables are related.
3. Create a visual diagram or model.
a. The Independent-Dependent Variable Model
b. Using the Input-Output Model
c. Using Concept Mapping
4. Explain your conceptual framework in narrative form.

Writing the Hypothesis

According to Mertler and Charles (2008), a hypothesis is a "testable statement of predicted relationship or difference
among selected variables." Hypotheses are statements that forecast the findings of a study. In other words, they are
"educational guesses" on what could possibly be the outcome of the study.
There are three main types of hypotheses, according to Charters (1992), as cited by Mertler and Charles (2008).
1. directional research hypothesis - it indicates the direction of the results.
2. nondirectional research hypothesis - it only specifies the change that may occur, but not the direction of the
change.
3. null hypothesis - it states that no change will occur, or no difference nor relationships will be found.

Definition of Terms
As you write your research, you will be encountering and using terms in your study that would have to be defined. In
this section of the research paper, define important key terms in your study in one of two ways, or both. This can be
done either through conceptual definition or operational definition. Conceptual definitions are definitions that come
from related books, literature, and the dictionary. On the other hand, operational definitions are based on how the
terms have been used in the study. Just like in a glossary, the terms to be defined should be arranged alphabetically.
Researchers often have the freedom of using just one type of definition for their definition of terms. However, there
are instances when some researchers who have the luxury of time and resources would apply both operational and
conceptual definitions.

Lesson Highlights
1. The research framework refers to the overall structure which helps shape the entirety of the research
project.
2. There are two main types of research framework: (a) the theoretical and (b) the conceptual framework.
3. The theoretical framework is developed from existing theories.
4. The conceptual framework is more about the approach that a researcher takes in answering a research
question.
5. A conceptual framework is made up of a number of concepts and may include a theoretical framework
within, while a theoretical framework can stand on its own.
6. A research hypothesis is a statement of what the researcher expects to find out at the end of the study.
7. There are three main types of hypotheses according to Charters (1992): (a) directional, (b) nondirectional,
and (c) the null hypothesis.
8. The null hypothesis is always expressed as a negative statement, and is subject to testing, in which the
researcher eventually will decide if it will be accepted or rejected.
9. The key terms in a research study may be defined either through conceptual definition or operational
definition. Conceptual definitions are those coming from related literature, while operational definitions are
those based on how the terms are used in the study.

VARIABLES
Changing qualities of characteristics of persons or things like age, gender, intelligence, ideas, achievements,
confidence, and so on that involved in your research study.
Made up of the root or base word
"vary" which means to undergo changes or to differ from, variables have different or varying values in relation to time
and situation.

🧷in research, One important thing you have to focus on at the start of your study is to determine the variables
involved in your study.

🧷basic types of variables

Independent variables – cause
Dependent Variables – effect

-extra variables, they form this other type of variables called extraneous variables. like age, gender, or personality
traits may suddenly surface to create effects on the relationships of the two basic variables.
Extraneous variables are to be controlled by you, the experimenter.
-if they do not give in to your control, they become confounding variables that can strongly influence your study.
The involvement of confounding variables in the research results in the production of "mixed up, confusing, or
bewildering results."
-participant variables if they refer to the moods, emotions, or intelligence of the subject;
-situational variables, if they pertain to nature of the place: smelly, chilly, cold, hot, spacious, and the like.
-Involved not within the research situation but outside the research process, the extraneous variables exist as
"nuisance variables," whose potency need to go down to prevent it from affecting the results negatively.

Other types of variables

 1. Constant - do not undergo any changes during an experiment
2. Attribute - characteristics of people: intelligence, creativity, anxiety, learning styles, etc.
3. Covariate - included in the research study to create interactions with the independent and dependent
variables
4. Continuous - quantitative in nature and is used in interval or ratio scale of measurement
5. Dichotomous - has only two possible results: one or zero
6. Latent - cannot be directly observed like personality traits
7. Manifest - can be directly observed to give proofs to latent variables
8. Exogenous - found outside an identified model
9. Endogenous - found inside; as a part of identified model

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Meaning of Quantitative Research Design

In any research type, much more, in a quantitative research where you do a great deal of abstraction and scientific or
logical thinking, a research design is a part and parcel of your study. By means of your research design, you are able
to make these aspects of your research clear: your methods or techniques in finding answers to your research
questions and in collecting data.
Coming out with the design of your research is not an initial act of your study.
It is not the starting period of your research that makes you pour much of your time in mulling over your research
problem and in obtaining background knowledge about your research topic. Preparing the design of your research
work takes place after finalizing your mind on these, major aspects of your research: research topic, background of
the study, research questions, hypotheses, and research strategy like: case study, experimentation, survey, and
action research, among others, that would introduce you to the different data-collecting techniques of interview,
observation, and questionnaire. Simply stated, quantitative research focuses on numbers, statistics, and relationships
between variables.

Experimental Research Design

is a quantitative research design that bases its research method on a scientific activity called experiment, in which a
test or examination of a thing under a manipulated or controlled environment is done to determine the validity or
truthfulness of such thing.
This design involves two groups of subjects:
1.the experimental group on which the condition, treatment, or intervention is applied
2.the control group that is not given any treatment or condition.

Following this experimental design, you conduct two kinds of tests:

pre-test for both groups and post-test for the experimental or treatment group to see the difference between them
based on the effects of the treatment or condition given to the experimental group.

There are two types of experimental research designs: the true experimental design and the quasi-experimental
design.

a. True Experimental Design - What proves this as a true experimental design is its random selection of participants.
It is a bias-free selection that ensures objectivity of results. This design is the best way to examine causal
relationships.
b.Quasi-experimental Design - The term quasi (pronounced as kwahz-eye) means partly, partially, pseudo, or almost.
The non-adherence of this research design to random selection of participants is the reason it got the name, quasi-
experimental research, which means a research with the capacity to yield findings that are seemingly or more or less
true.
Prone to bias caused by your purposive, rather than random selection of participants, quasi-experimental design is
incapable of establishing cause effect relationships. Trying to approximate or to be like the true experimental design,
this research design comes in different types such as the following:
 Matched comparison group design -
In this quasi-experimental design, instead of selecting participants for the control group, you get a set of
participants that shows close similarities with the experimental or treatment group based on one or more
important variables.
 Time-series quasi-experimental design -
Your act of controlling the variables in this case is through multiple observations of the subjects before and
after the treatment or condition applied to the experimental group. The purpose of serial observations is to
see the connection between the pre-test and the post-test based on the taking place of the treatment or
condition.
  Counter-balanced quasi-experimental design - Here, control is applied to one group to examine the effects
of all treatment and conditions to control variables. For instance, negative results coming from three-time
observations are counterbalanced or given weight that is equated with positive results from four- or five-time
observations.
 Single-subject quasi-experimental design - This design is used when the population is so large that you find
difficulty in choosing a group to study. So, you decide to apply the condition or treatment to a single subject
like a class of learners then later find out the effects of the treatment on the entire class.

Experimental Research Design Stages

The true experimental and quasi-experimental designs follow the same stages in research designing. Their difference
lies only in the participant-selection process, in that the first is randomized; the second, purposive. (Lapan 2012;
Walliman 2014)
1. Clear knowledge of the research objectives that enable you to decide not only on the kind of research you
have to do, but also on the manner you have to follow in conducting the research.
2. Formulation of hypotheses to state your guesses of what may not be true (null hypotheses).or may be true
(alternative hypotheses) about the results.
3. Method of testing your hypotheses or of examining their validity like deciding whether you have to follow the
experimental design or the quasi-experimental design.
4. Choice of which instrument to use in collecting data; that is, whether to use interview, observation, or
questionnaire.
5. Process of selecting the subjects to compose the control group and the experimental group.
6. Performance of experimentation that allows control of the cropping up of extraneous variables and of the
experimenter's bias.
7. Collection and analysis of data.

Non-Experimental Research Design

a quantitative research design that is capable of giving qualitative and quantitative data, but more on qualitative data;
hence, this is often used in the field of social sciences.
Unlike the experimental design that allows manipulation or control of some aspects of the research, non-experimental
research design shuns controlling variables. Instead, it involves variables the way they naturally exist on earth.

The following are the types of non-experimental research designs

1. Descriptive - depicts an image or a picture of an individual or a group
2. Comparative - states the differences or similarities between or among people, things, objects, etc.
3. Correlative - shows the extent and direction of variable relationships, that is, whether a negative or positive
relationship exists between or among them
4. Survey - describes the attitudes, preferences, views, feelings, views, and other behavioral patterns of a big
number of people for arriving at a certain conclusion about societal concerns and issues
5. Ex Post Facto - translates itself into these English words, "that which is done afterwards" and has the
purpose of deriving data from things that are by nature taking place, so as to obtain explanations about past
events (Litchman 2013, p. 42)

QUIZ
1. Designing a research is thinking – Imaginatively
2. To design a research is seeing the research process in your – mind
3. Preparing in your mind how to find answers to your research questions is – designing your research
4. These are aspects of your research: research objectives, topic, questions, hypotheses, and methodology.
You come to think of quantitative research design - after thinking of these aspects of your research
5. Central to experimental design is analyzing relationships that are – causal
6. A quantitative research design that is equated with qualitative design is - non-experimental
7. Quantitative research designs are true for all experimental designs except the aspect on – subject selection
8. A quantitative research design that makes you behave as a scientist is – experimental design
9. An empirical study is based on a research design that is – quantitative
10. These are the leading indicators of the occurrence of true experimental design - experimental and control
groups

Questionnaire
Questionnaire is a paper containing series of questions formulated for an individual and independent answering by
several respondents for obtaining statistical information. Each question offers a number of probable answers from
which the respondents, on the basis or their own judgment, will choose the best answer. Making up a questionnaire
are factual and opinionated questions. Questions to elicit factual answers are formulated in a multiple-choice type and
those to ask about the respondents' views, attitudes, preferences, and other opinionated answers are provided with
sufficient space where the respondents could write their sentential answers to opinionated questions.
Responses yielded by this instrument are given their numerical forms (numbers, fractions, percentages) and
categories and are subjected to statistical analysis. Questionnaire is good for collecting data from a big number of
respondents situated in different places because all you have to do is either to hand the paper to the respondents or
to send it to them through postal or electronic mail. However, ironically, your act of sending the questionnaires to
respondents, especially to those in remote areas, is susceptible to waste of money, time, and effort for you do not
have any assurance of the return of all or a large number of fully accomplished questionnaires.
Interview
Survey as a data-gathering technique likewise uses interview as its data-gathering instrument. Similar to a
questionnaire, interview makes you ask a set of questions, only that, this time, you do it orally. Some, however, say
that with the advent of modern technology, oral interview is already a traditional way of interviewing, and the modern
ways happen through the use of modern electronic devices such as mobile phones, telephones, smart phones, and
other wireless devices.

Quantitative data-collection technique

• observation- senses, to gather facts or information
-direct- participative
-indirect- sighting from a far, mediated
• Survey- using data gathering instruments
- questionnaires- online or printed set of questions

Order of Interview Questions

In asking interview questions, you see to it that you do this sequentially; meaning, let your questions follow a certain
order such as the following:

 First set of questions - opening questions to establish friendly relationships, like questions about the place,
the time, the physical appearance of the participant, or other non-verbal things not for audio recording
 Second set of questions - generative questions to encourage open-ended questions like those that ask
about the respondents' inferences, views, or opinions about the interview topic
 Third set of questions - directive questions or close-ended questions to elicit specific answers like those that
are answerable with yes or no, with one type of an object, or with definite period of time and the like
 Fourth set of questions - ending questions that give the respondents the chance to air their satisfaction,
wants, likes, dislikes, reactions, or comments about the interview. Included here are also closing statements
to give the respondents some ideas or clues on your next move or activity about the results of the interview

Guidelines in Formulating Interview Questions:

1. Use simple language
2. Avoid acronyms, jargon,
3. Let one question elicit only one answer, no double-barrel question.
4. Express your point in a specific, bias and gender free
5. Give way to how your respondents want them to identity
6. Free flow or continuity

• Experiment- Treatment- plants, Intervention- person, Condition. Post-test and pre-test.

An experiment is a scientific method of collecting data whereby you give the subjects a sort of treatment or condition
then evaluate the results to find out the manner by which the treatment affected the subjects and to discover the
reasons behind the effects of such treatment on the subjects. This quantitative data-gathering technique aims at
manipulating or controlling conditions to show which condition or treatment has effects on the subjects and to
determine how much condition or treatment operates or functions to yield a certain outcome.
The process of collecting data through experimentation involves selection of subjects or participants, pre-testing the
subjects prior to the application of any treatment or condition, and giving the subjects post-test to determine the
effects of the treatment on them. These components of experiment operate in various ways. Consider the following
combination or mixture of the components that some research studies adopt:
1. Treatment → evaluation
2. Pre-test → Treatment → Post-test
3. Pre-test → Multiple Treatments → Post-test
4. Pre-test → Treatment, → Immediate Post-test → 6-mos.
Post-test → 1-yr. → Post-test

• Content analysis- it makes you search for several written or oral content.
Measurement Scales for quantitative data

1. Nominal scale- to show classification of things (id number)(religion)(gender)(position)(%)

2. Ordinal scale- it shows ranking or hierarchy ( ranking of honors)(position)
3. Interval scale- it shows equal differences (1 is the lowest value)( weights)
4. Ratio scale- it gives value to zero, differences between points (quiz)(rating from 0 to a certain point)