1

CENTRE FOR CONTINUING EDUCATION AND CONSULTANCY SERVICES,

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, JALINGO

A SUPPLEMENTARY READING MANUAL

ON

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

PAD 223/LGS 206

FOR

STUDENTS OF DIPLOMA IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND LOCAL

GOVERNMENT STUDIES

BY

PAUL, ERIC. B.Sc. (Public Admin UNIMAID) GNIM

2011
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Course goals and objectives

This course (PAD 223) is designed to expose the student to the dynamics and principles
of social and economic development. It explores some fundamental issues on the policies
and strategies adopted by the government in its quest to meet the yearnings and
aspirations of the people within the context of international economic relations.
On completion of the course, the student should be able to;
 Know the concept of development and planning within the context of socio-
economic thinking
 Know the nature and roles of national development plan
 Know the problems of industrial development
 Know some contending issues in population growth
 Know the Social services sector policies
 Understand the contributions of some major international and domestic
organizations/institutions to socio-economic development
 Understand the role of Local government in socio-economic policy formulation
and implementation
 Understand the politics of revenue allocation in Nigeria
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Topic (1) THE CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

INTRODUCTION
This course will be a mirage if the concept of development is not discussed. The word
development has a multifaceted application to an individual, a family, a society, and the
nation at large. One may see development as anything new which ranges from road
network, electricity, telecommunications, pipe borne water, intensified security, and
improved health system etc. Others may see it as civilization, modernization,
industrialization, and improved standards of living. But the above misconstruing of words
do not mean development in the real sense, rather they are indicators of development.

Development as a concept is an encompassing whole. It covers the political, social,

economic and technological spheres. The emphasis on the political aspect are; mass
political participation of all interest groups, competitive periodic election among political
parties, regular conduct of free and fair elections, and strict adherence to the rule of law,
stability in the political system through the smooth transfer of political power, freedom of
expression, respect for fundamental human rights, and according to G. Almond and S.
Verba (1963), “the institutionalization of civic culture.” The economic aspect looks at
development from the improvement of the Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) of the
domestic currency, increase in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Gross National
Product (GNP), drastic reduction in the level of poverty, and the creation of employment
opportunities etc. The technological aspect sees development as it manifests in improved
communication system, industrialization, and mechanized agricultural practices.
The entrenchment of social norms and values, advancement from a less sophisticated
nature to a more sophisticated one, or a movement from a simple to a complex nature,
and an evolutionary process from a less developed structure to a more advanced one
which is manifested in the government’s attempt to meet the educational, health, and
other social needs of the people are the social aspect of development.

However over the years, different scholarly debates have given birth to three broad
assertions on development. And they are;
i. Modernization
ii. Dependency
iii. Marxists school of thought

A. The Modernization School

This school sees development as a desired state of affairs through which all nations must
aspire to attain. And it is likened to an evolutionary process where a society moves from
a backward stage (traditional) to advancement (modernity). Proponents of this school are
Walt Whitman Rostow, David Apter, David McClelland and Edward Shills etc. Rostow
opined in his work ‘The stages of Economic Growth’- A non communist manifesto;
“That development is a uni - linear process of transformation through which all nations
must pass through”. As such he outlined the traditional stage, pre-take off stage, take off
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stage, thrive to maturity stage, and the era of mass consumption. He went further saying
that Northern American and Western European countries have passed through these
stages, because they have outdone all traditional practices and have imbibed legal-
rational principles as such they are classified the “developed nations”.
Modernization scholars further blamed African and other third world countries for
catching themselves up in the vicious circle of poverty, diseases, unemployment, and low
technological know how, because they quickly demanded for independence in the 1950’s
and 60’s without duly meeting the requirements for development. And since they fell out
in the stages of development, they should quickly copy the modern norms and values in
the western world rather than pass through the stages painfully, as they (Western world)
have already done that on behalf of every other nation in the world.

(B) Dependency School of thought

This emerged as a critique to the views of the of the modernization scholars, and
pioneered by Latin American scholars like Raul Prebish, Fernando Cardoso, Theotanios
Dos Santos, and James Caporaso and advanced by Andre Gunder Frank, Jahun Gultang,
Immanuel Wallerstien, Walter Rodney, and Samir Amin.
Their postulations are based on the following assumptions, that;
i. Development and underdevelopment are two sides of a coin, which could be
understood within the context of a structural linkage between the developed
capitalist nations (Metro poles or centre) and periphery (third world countries)
ii. The third world countries (periphery) depend on the developed nations
because of an unfavourable terms of trade and low technological know how
iii. The third world countries are what they are today because their developmental
stages were truncated by the said developed nations during the colonial era,
and they were milked dry of their indigenous human and material resources
which were used to develop the western capitalist countries
iv. There is an uneven development between and within nations, marginalization
of some sectors or social groups as a result of the dependence. And the local
bourgeoisie cooperate with foreign bourgeoisie in the underdevelopment of
the third world nations
v. The instrumentation of the Multinational Corporations (MNCs) and the trans-
national corporations (TNCs) distorts economic growth and development in
the third world countries
vi. To them development can only take place if the asymmetric relationship
between the third world countries (peripheries) and the developed capitalist
nations (metropoles) is severed (delinked).

(C) Marxists’ School of thought

This emerged from the views of the German philosopher Karl Marx (1818-1883), whose
postulation is from the class system. A class is one of the groups in the society that
people can be divided based on their jobs, income, status, family, position, and prestige.
To Marx, the concept of Class is inseparably linked to a dialectical theory of social order.
Two classes are seen representing two sides of a fundamental contradiction which
originates from a conflict that brings about a significant change. Major socio-economic
and political events in history are the product of conflict between the two opposing
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interests of those who clamour for change or the destruction of the status quo, and those
who preserve the existing power relations. That is the led, and the leaders, the governed
and the governors, the bourgeoisie and the proletariats, and the haves and the have-nots.
Explicit in this analysis is the relationship of the individual to the means of production.
To Marx again, the few individuals exploit those who do not have anything except their
labour. This in turn affects their personality and consciousness.
Therefore development in this regards is the equal distribution of the ownership of the
means of production, and social justice which individuals are bestowed with.

From the scholarly debates above, development entails;

a. A continuing improvement of the capacity of the people and their society to
control and manipulate their physical environment as well as themselves for their
own benefit and mankind’s
b. Improvement in all spheres of human endeavours which cover political, social,
economic, and technological aspects
c. Development is a holistic (General), and not sectoral improvement. As such the
government, Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Community Based
Organizations (CBOs), International Organizations like IMF, World Bank,
UNESCO, UNICEF, and members of the community are all stakeholders of
development.

Social and Economic development

In as much as there is no universally accepted definition of development, social and
economic development falls in the same vein. However, a working definition as far as
this course is concerned is “the deliberate attempt by the government and other
supporting institutions to identify the basic socio-economic needs of the people and
formulate policies which are focused on meeting those needs on equitable grounds”.
These needs can be poverty reduction, employment opportunities, and provision of health
services, education, communication, technology, industrialization, environment
management and protection, security, child care, women and youth development and care
for the destitute.

The concept of Planning

The concept of planning is derived from the Latin word “Planum” which means a flat
surface, a design, a blue print that serves a guide or instruction on how to do something.
Some people see it as thinking before acting. This assumption makes man and planning
as inseparable companions. Thus for man to remain successful in this life, he must be
able to plan, i.e. think before acting. Similarly, planning bridges the gap between the
present state and the future. This is because the future is full of uncertainties. Therefore
the attempt to remove all uncertainties on our way to the desired future is in itself
planning.
According to Koontz (1980), “Planning is the advanced decision taken on what to do in
the future, how to do it, when to do it, and who to it”.
Killick sees it as an exercise of forethought in an attempt to selecting the best means of
securing specified ends. This makes planning a means to an end.
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Planning must revolve around the future, alternatives, and rational choices among
alternatives in order to predict the future, anticipate the future, and proffer achievable
solutions.
From the foregoing, a working definition of planning is “a proposal and blue print of
choice among alternatives which gives a foresight of making a desired future realizable”.
This is categorized into short, medium, and long term plans.

Topic (2) THE NATURE OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN

This is a deliberate attempt to manage and control the economic, physical and social
conditions of country by government’s intervention through market and national forces. It
looks at changes in the economy from income, consumption, savings, and taxation while
addressing the physical and social needs of the people through infrastructures, road
networks, and industries, educational services, care of the disables, employment creation
and poverty eradication.

Why countries embark on National Development Plan

The government is just like an individual. It plans for the social, economic, and physical
needs of the citizens, just like how an individual can. While the individual’s plan for the
future is personalised, the government’s plan is purely political. Therefore the
government embarks on national development plans to;

i. Advance/promote political wills:

During the electioneering campaigns, politicians go about making various promises, and
when in office, they try to fulfill such promises which are born out of the people’s
yearnings and aspirations. Thus the promises the make constitute part of the country’s
development plan. For instance during the Shagari’s Green Revolution in the 1980’s,
Obasanjo’s National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS),
Yar’Adua/Goodluck’s Seven (7) Point Agenda, and Goodluck’s Vision 20:20:20, which
is transformational in nature.

ii. Diversify the economy

This is an attempt by a country to create other means of income/revenue in order to
complement the nation’s economic mainstay. For instance, to diversify Nigeria’s sole
dependence on petroleum, the government now promotes the agricultural and tourism
sectors of the economy to complement petroleum. Else the constant dependence on
petroleum may pose a future threat for the nation’s economy.

iii Reduce internal threats and tensions

When the government does not plan, internal threats and tensions are bound to occur,
which will affect the nation’s security. For instance the Niger-Delta crises, the Boko
Haram insurgence, high rate of unemployment, poverty, rural-urban drift, and ethno-
religious conflicts in the Nigerian body polity. The second National Development Plan in
Nigeria for instance was focused on rehabilitating the economy which was ravaged by the
1967-1970 Civil war, and to reconcile the affected entities.
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iv. To reduce dependence on other nations

Countries also embark on development plans to reduce dependence on other nations.
Dependency is a popular trend among developing nations especially those that rely on
other developed nations for goods and services. If a country is able to draw a
proactive national development plan, it will reduce dependence on other nations.

v. To reduce budgetary anomalies

If the budget is the financial plan of the country which is used to determine the
income and expenditure of the country, it must be fused into the national development
plan so as to correct anomalies in the country’s plan. From 2004-2007, the nation’s
budgets were all drawn within the framework of the NEEDS policy document.

vi. To avoid future recurrence of socio-economic problem

The possibility of avoiding the future recurrence of a socio-economic problem is
there if a country embarks on a good development plan. Most Nigerians are
victims of socio-economic problems due to the haphazard implementation of
government’s policies, and this is because of repetition of such policy in different tags.
Eg Compare Obasanjo’s NEEDS, Yar’ Adua’s Seven (7) Point Agenda, and
Goodluck’s Vision 20:20:20:, they mean the same thing with different names.

THE ROLES OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN

a. It helps the country to have a foresight into its future.
b. It is a roadmap of development treaded by a nation from its current state to its
future.
c. It reduces uncertainty for a country
d. It bridges the gap from where we are to where we want to go as a nation

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FAILURE OF DEVELOPMENT PLANS

i. Lack of political will by leaders to meet the yearnings and aspirations of the
people
ii. Implementation lag: The natural death of government policies along their
implementation span
iii. Poor accountability in the conduct of public affairs
iv. Leadership crises among and within political parties
v. Inflation of contracts to receive kickbacks
vi. Misplaced human values/uncommitted citizens
vii. Indiscipline in the process of project implementation
viii. Unreliable statistical data
ix. Dependent economy
x. Poverty, inequality, and unemployment
xi. Get-Rich-Quick Syndrome (GRQS)
xii. Rural-Urban Migration
xiii. Masters and not servant of the people
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FACTORS THAT CAN ENHANCE THE SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION

OF DEVELOPMENT PLANS

i. There must be value reorientation to correct the misplaced values Nigerians

have towards development plans displaying high sense of patriotism and
nationalism
ii. Proper project monitoring and evaluation, within the context of
policies/programmes of the government
iii. The appropriate use of electoral power by the people to elect patriotic leaders
iv. Proper consolidation of democracy to address the problems of national
question
v. Drawing people oriented policies/programmes which will empower the people
vi. Proper control and management
vii. Addressing the problems of power once and for all to woo foreign investors
viii. Improving the economy from being a dependent economy to an independent
one
ix. Employment creation through labour intensive projects

AN OUTLOOK OF NIGERIA’S NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANS FROM 1946-

2010

(a) COLONIAL PLANS FOR DEVELOPMENT AND WELFARE SCHEME

(1946-1956)

This was the British colonial government’s plan to develop Nigeria. Its focus was the
maintenance of law and order, agriculture and transportation. It marked the beginning of
the Gross Domestic Product (GNP) in Nigeria with high dependence on foreign donor
agencies for loans, while foreign experts were employed for its execution.
Bade Onimode criticized this development plan for being so myopic in scope and
implementation. This is because;
1. The maintenance of law and order was an avenue created to cart Nigeria’s
indigenous resources to Britain and other western countries which led to
Nigeria’s underdevelopment
2. The reliance on foreign donors and loans led Nigeria into a debt trap
3. Foreign experts do not know the problems of Nigerians and as such cannot
proffer solutions to such problems
4. The plan was exogenous in nature since foreign experts were used to
provide infrastructural and social services to Nigerians
5. It ushered in the Laissez faire attitude (Capitalism) when the first private
companies emerged, and local companies could not stand them
6. The Marshall plan of the United States led to the” dollarization” of the
global economy
7. It led to a large scale exploitation of Nigerians
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(b) THE FIRST NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN (1962-1968)

This was designed by a British Development Economist called Woofang Stoler. Its focus
was to improve the GDP of Nigeria through agriculture, which then was the mainstay of
the Nigerian economy. It encouraged the exploitation of such products and the turnover
was used to provide social amenities and infrastructures. It also targeted the industrial
takeoff of Nigeria, with the view of creating employment.
It was criticized for being too abstract in nature as it replicated the colonial welfare plan,
designed by a Briton and supervised by the World Bank. This made it look exogenous in
nature.
It also suffered from unreliable data and marked the dominance of the economy by
expatriates; this marked the genesis of the control of our economy by the MNCs and
TNCs
The civil war finally ended the first national development plan

(c) THE SECOND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN (1970-1975)

This came immediately after the Civil war which ravaged the Nigerian economy. It was
aimed at restoring and rehabilitating the economy with the available resources at hand
then. This plan had the following objectives;
- To build a just and egalitarian society for Nigerians
- To create a free and democratic society
- To make Nigeria a land full of bright opportunities
- To improve the real income of Nigerians, while creating job opportunities
for the people especially in the rural areas
- To achieve the 3Rs (Reconciliation, Rehabilitation, and Reconstruction)
This plan was criticized for being “Urban centric” which led to a dichotomy between the
urban dwellers and the rural people.
Similarly, the agricultural sector started suffering neglect due to mass exploration of
petroleum
And it was short lived by the ousting of Gen. Yakubu Gowon

(d) THE THIRD NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN (1975-1980)

The primary aim of this plan was to improve the living standard of the average Nigerian
and placing Nigeria among the developed economies of the world.
This feat was to be achieved by;
- An increase in the per capita income of Nigerians
- An even distribution of income
- Reduction in the level of unemployment
- Diversification of the economy
Prominent among its achievement was the execution of the Nigerian Enterprises
Promotion Decree (1972).Giving Nigerians sixty percent control of commercial activities
in the economy.
It was criticized for indiscipline in terms of planning and control by government officials.
The oil boom which occurred due to the crises in the Middle East made the Nigerian
economy to be an import dependent one. The government started behaving as if it just
won a lottery and this abused our moral values.
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Smuggling and illegal trading became the order of the day.

(e) THE FOURTH NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN (1981-1985)

This was drawn by the Shagari’s administration with an adoption of some of the goals of
the third national development plan. Its general philosophy was the development of
people instead of things. The Green Revolution became a National Slogan.
The assumption aside agricultural development was to;
i. Create a greater self reliant economy
ii. Promote technological development
iii. Increased productivity
iv. Bridging the rural-urban inequality to reduce rural-urban migration
v. Promote new national orientation
vi. Balanced development and reduction in the level of unemployment

(F) NIGERIA’S PERSPECTIVE AND ROLLING PLANS (1986-1990-1993)

This was coined from the Babangida’s structural adjustment programme (SAP), and led
to a three years rolling plans which created room for adjustments. The focus was to;
a. Diversify the economy and reduce dependence on oil
b. There was a request for Nigeria to become a rentier state
And the main objectives were to;
- Create job opportunities
- Poverty alleviation
- Emphasis on non-oil sector
- Reduction of fiscal deficit and extended budget campaign
- Civil service reforms
- Rural and Community development through MAMSER and DFRRI

(G) VISION 2010

The Nigeria Economic Summit (NES) in 1995 defined a vision as a mental picture of a
desired future. The concept was launched by the then Head of State, the Late Gen. Sani
Abacha on the occasion of the 36th anniversary (1st October, 1996). It was designed to
make Nigerians appreciate the importance of long term plan in order to achieve national
self reliance, economic strength and political stability. This concept argued that it was
able to correct all developmental anomalies in Nigeria since the national development
plan of 1962, and subsequent plans, in Fourteen (14) years.
Its main focus was on;
- An improved Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
- Increased literacy
- Inflation control
- Health service delivery
- Agriculture
- Industrialization
- Development of science and technology
These all were summed up in the following philosophies;
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(a) Political Philosophy: To create a stable suitable democratic government were all
will work towards attainment of common goals, characterized by transparency,
and accountability in the conduct of public affairs
(b) Economic philosophy: The Nigerian mixed economy should be more changed to
a more market oriented economy, through direct private investment in the
productive sector, while a diversified economy should be its guiding principles.
(c) Social philosophy: This was an attempt to improving the general living standards
of the people by drawing socially vibrant policies. The key indicators here were
improvement in literacy level, health, employment, education, and drastic
reduction in social vices like human trafficking, drug trafficking, and large scale
corruption in both high and low places.

(H) NATIONAL ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGY [NEEDS] (2004-2007)
The National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS) was launched on
the 25th May, 2004 by the Obasanjo’s administration as a response to developmental
challenges encountered in the country. And became a replica of the United Nations’
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), in Nigeria
Considering the political, social, and economic decay of the country, it was poised at
meeting a sustainable poverty reduction, employment generation, wealth creation, and
value re-orientation. It was to be replicated at the state level as SEEDS, and LEEDS at
the local government level.
Its implementation institution at the national level was the Independent Monitoring
Committee, which was chaired by the secretary of the government of the federation.

(I) SEVEN [7] POINT AGENDA

This is the policy thrust of the Late President Umaru Musa Yar’Adua. It is an incremental
approach of the Obasanjo’s NEEDS, but modified in the following cardinal points.
1. Improvement in the transport sector
2. Agricultural development
3. Power and Energy
4. Health
5. Education
6. Security/Niger-Delta
7. Wealth creation/employment

SIGNIFICANCE OF BUDGET FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT
A budget simply put is the financial plan of an entity, organization, and a country (State),
which depicts how revenue (income) will be raised, and expenditure over a period of
time.
In social and economic development, a budget reflects a financial proposal of what the
government intends spending from the income generated from its economic activities.
Thus all of socio-economic policies of the government are geared towards meeting the
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peoples’ needs. Education, Health, Agriculture, Employment, Infrastructural

development, Industrialization, Security, and Science and Technological Development
depend on national budget. The above is imperative because Nigeria like other countries
is welfarist nation, which has decided to shoulder most of the citizen’s responsibility.
Hence the need for social and economic development is born.

Topic (3) INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

Industries play significant roles in national development as they are involved in

production of goods from raw materials to meet the peoples’ demand. This is done in
factories where raw materials are converted from their crude to consumable (useful)
stage. Industries can be classified into craft, mining, processing (value addition), and
manufacturing.
The attempt by a country to move from a non industrial stage to an industrial stage as
opined by Sutcliffe (1982), is industrialization. When a country adopts a strategy that
emphasizes on industrial development, especially in the manufacturing sector without
relegating other sectors of the economy, it means industrialization has taken place.
In a developing country like Nigeria, industrial development can not be under estimated
given the following roles played;
(a) The industrial sector contributes to increase in productivity,
which in turn contributes to in the overall gross national product,
and the use of new capital assets, and new skills employed.
(b) It generates experience among workers by developing and
diffusing skills in the labour force
(c) It leads to the development of new equipment and inputs which
can be used in other sectors of the economy
(d) It creates alternative employment opportunities, especially in a
country where agriculture employs over 80% of the population
and reducing dependence on white collar jobs
(e) It helps in reducing dependence on imports, therefore saving
foreign exchange, and correcting balance of payment problems

Problems of the Industrial sector in Nigeria

In as much as industries play some significant roles to national development, they also
encounter some constraints that affect their performances and such range from the
following;
(I) Scarcity of Capital: Most Nigerians are poor with low income and the
capacity to save for investment is small. This in turn affects industrial
development.
(II) Limited Market for goods produced does not encourage industrialization:
As opined by Adam Smith in his works “An inquiry into the nature and causes
of the wealth of nations.
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(III) There is an absence of entrepreneurial ability, with high level of unskilled

labour. These have made expatriates to dominate the industrial sector in
Nigeria, thereby slowing the pace of development.
(IV) Poor Infrastructural facilities and unsuitable economic environment: The
transport and communication systems, power, energy, and security are poor
which affect industrial development
(V) Poor technical know how: Contemporary industries are machine oriented,
and most Nigerians do not have the knowledge of how to operate such
machines.

Some Major factors to be considered when locating an industry

The following are factors to be considered when locating an industry;
(i) Natural factors: Some industries are restricted to particular geographical and
geological considerations in such a way that the investor has no choice. This is
particular to extractive industries like mining and primary activities like
farming. For instance a fertile land for farming can not be moved so the
farmer is compelled to remain there. So also petroleum and mining.
(ii) Nearness to raw materials: Since raw materials are the essential ingredients
in the production, their proximity to the raw materials can facilitate the
location of an industry so as to reduce the cost of transportation, damage, and
importation.
(iii) Nearness to Markets: The emphasis is on the direct consumers of the
product, which also reduces the cost of transportation especially of bulky
products, or perishable and delicate goods whose demands are not immediate.
(iv) Supply of labour: An adequate supply of labour is a requirement for the
location of industries. An industry will preferably be sited in Lagos than in a
rural area due to experienced and cheap labour.
(v) Nearness to power: Industries are often attracted to places where there is a
high source of power (Coal, Gas, Electricity, etc), which is an important input
in the production process and comparatively cheap.
(vi) Availability of transportation facilities/Road network: This has to with the
accessibility of the location, where it is opened to motorways, sea and air
ports, railways, where produced goods can easily be transported to their
markets, or raw materials to the industry.
(vii) External economies: This the advantage an industry enjoys due to its
proximity to another. For instance where another industry sells its by-
products, or comparatively cheap transportation, communication, and joint
advertisement etc.

The Indigenization Policy

This is a policy where the government of a country develops and promotes the country’s
enterprises such that citizens of the country are given full participation, by playing
dominant roles in the key sectors of the economy. It leads to entrepreneurial development
amongst citizens of a nation. The Nigerian Indigenization Policy came into being in 1972
following the promulgation of the Nigerian Enterprises Promotion Decree, which was
promulgated to stimulate the indigenous entrepreneurship due to the increasing activities
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of foreign private firms in Nigeria. The Barclay Bank, UAC, John Holt, SCOA, and
Leventis Ventures etc

In essence, the indigenization policy had the following objectives;

a) To create opportunities for indigenous Nigerian businessmen
b) To maximize the local retention of profit
c) To promote the level of intermediate capital goods production

The above made Nigerians to completely own and operate the first schedule meant for
commercial activities, and 40% of the second schedule which focused on the
manufacturing industries should be left for Nigerians as well.
The indigenization policy had the following impact on Nigerians;
1) It gave Nigerians to an opportunity to participate in the business activities of their
country
2) It reduced the repatriation of profits to foreign countries
3) It became a feasible tool for industrialization, with a high level increase in
immediate goods production
4) It led to entrepreneurial development amongst Nigerians

Topic (4) UNDERSTANDING ISSUES IN POPULATION GROWTH

The study of population is a very important factor in social and economic development;
this is because people’s welfare is related to government policies. Aside that people are
the suppliers of labour which is a primary factor of production of all goods and services.
And the consumers (people) are the ultimate beneficiaries of the products of
development. Thus the production, distribution, and consumption stages of economic
activities revolve around people who are the (i) producers and (ii) consumers.
However, in order to understand the concept of population, it is very important to know
the number of people (total population), what their ages are (age distribution), how many
males and females (sex distribution), where they live (geographical or spatial
distribution), what jobs they do (occupational distribution), and the migratory tendencies
of the population. All these can be determined through a population census which is
carried out once in every ten years.
Through the study of population, one can be able to know whether the people’s welfare’s
level is decreasing or increasing, or whether such tallies with government’s
developmental plans.
From the foregoing, one can be able to deduce the following objectives;
 To determined the population growth of the country
 To know whether the structures on ground can be able to support the population
 To determine the effects to population growth on the people’s standard of living
and be able to plan so as to solve such problems
 To cope with vast increase in the labour force
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The Malthusian theory of population

In 1798, Rev. Thomas Malthus, an English Priest wrote an “Essay on Population”, in
which he identified and formulated an interrelationship between population, social
changes vis a vis economic resources.
His central arguments were as follows;
a) There is an enabling linkage between population and food production which is
drawn from the concept of diminishing returns especially on land. He postulated
that as population grows faster than food production, there will be a phenomenal
rise in tension between population and subsistence. To support this point, he went
further that population increases in a geometric progression of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
32,…….., which doubles every 30 to 40 years, food production increases in an
arithmetic progression of 1, 2, 4, 8, 10………………. This lopsided relationship
between population growth and food production, will force people to live on a
subsistence level.
b) Secondly the tension between population growth and food production can be
resolved by a check on mortality, where the increase in population close to a level
of subsistence can bring about misery, poverty, social vices, diseases, and
subsequent death, which will operate to check population growth
c) Finally, he observed that a measure of population balance can be obtained by
other means aside mortality checks. Thus delayed marriage and birth control can
limit population growth to food production

Overtime population has played a significant role in the socio-economic development of

Nigeria. But suffice it to say that Nigeria in the past three decades has witness a very high
population growth. From 1973-1982, there were close to 71 million people, this almost
doubled in 1991 to 120 million and 147 million in 2006, with almost 200 million people
before the end of 2014.
Government’s policy overtime has been to maintain an optimum population, where
existing resources, institutional frameworks, and technology will give rise to maximum
output or highest standards of living. This will depend on the quality and quantity of
economic resources such as land, capital, and technology. Given the above analysis,
Nigeria is seen to be an overpopulated country.

The Nigerian population policy

In 1982, Nigeria launched its first population policy which was designed to curb the
earlier mentioned population growth. The policy among others sought to reduce fertility
from the level of six children per family to four, with an optimum marriage age of 18
years for women and 24 years for men. It also advocated that pregnancies be restricted to
18-35 years range at the interval of 2 years, to enable proper child spacing for family
planning.

Population distribution
Population can be distributed into age, sex, occupation, and geography. Scholars have
classified the age distribution of the population into three, viz; the young persons (below
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15 years), the working population (over 15-60 years), and older persons (60 years and
above), with birth and death rates being the key determinants.
Those at the ages of 15 and 60 years are usually termed the dependent population, as they
rely on the working population. Government’s policy here will favour issues that will
better the lots of the dependent population such as; Health, Education, and Nutrition etc.
Where as, sex distribution refers to the distribution of the population into males and
females. This is done to so as to know the ratio of males per thousand females, and this is
determined by nature.
The occupational distribution looks at the various jobs, and occupations of the people.
Productive activities divide the people into the primary sector (farmers), secondary
(industrial), and tertiary (services rendered in both commercial {private} and government
sectors).

Geographical distribution is the dispersion of the people over a space, or the numbers of
people occupying a particular geographical area as a result of factors like soil fertility,
climate, economic and employment opportunities, political factors, defence, security and
other social institutions like schools, and hospitals etc.
The mobility of population looks at the movement of persons form one geographical area,
to another, which in other word is called migration, which may be internal (Within a
country), or international (across political boundaries). Migration can be classified into
emigration (movement out of the country which reduces the total population), and
immigration (movement into a country and which increases the population).

Topic (5) SOCIAL SERVICES SECTOR POLICIES

The term policy simply means a programme of goals, and general rules governing future
behavior. It can also be a declaration of intent (i.e. what one intends doing or not doing).
According to Dlakwa (2004), it is a way of studying and characterizing the interaction
between government and its clients (people).

Therefore, how the government interacts with its citizens in order to meet their basic
needs with available resources forms a public policy which social services is a part.
Social services policy is the continuous improvement of the quality of life of the entire
citizens of the country as groups and individuals. It looks at the promotion and
continuous improvement of initiatives and programmes aimed at improving the welfare
of the most vulnerable and disadvantaged groups notably the disables, the poor and
destitute, the aged, children, rural population and women. This is done through the
mobilization of human and social capacity of various institutions, communities, and
target groups to creatively and effectively cope with the challenges of change.

Some aims of social services policies

A) Social services policies provide the guide on how to anticipate control and
minimize social problems.
B) It also aids in the maintenance of high moral standards of the nation, as
well as keeping people abreast in responding to policies that are bound to
militate against the established standards.
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C) It also promotes policy orientations that are likely to strengthen the

observance and protection of human rights, promote social justice, and
human dignity, while integrating such to national goals.

Basic components of social services sector policies

1. The health sector

2. Educational sector
3. Poverty alleviation/employment creation
4. Care for the disabled, vulnerable, aged, and destitute
5. Family and child care
6. Rehabilitation
7. Counseling and corrections
8. Crime prevention, management, and control
9. Housing and environment
10. Rural and community development
Given the above assertions it will be important to discuss the following;

Evolution of Social Services delivery in Nigeria

Social services delivery in Nigeria is not new. In the pre-colonial (traditional) settings,
social services were provided by title holders, traditional rulers, family heads, age grades,
and traditional institutions. They were responsible for the maintenance of discipline,
settlement of communal disputes, offering rewards where necessary, and provision of
social services like health, and security to lives and properties.
The institutions were so structured that the children and the aged became the topmost
priority, especially offering them protection during inter-tribal wars, and communal
crises. Other roles were the clearing and maintenance of pathways (roads), provision of
potable water, and markets.
Families settled minor disputes, while complex ones were referred to the traditional
rulers.
Formal social services started in Lagos in the 1940s during the World War II, where
many abandoned children and street juveniles were picked to be rehabilitated. Hence the
establishment of orphanages and rehabilitation centers.

National Health Policy

The goal of the National Health Policy is to bring about a comprehensive health care
system based on the following assumptions. That the primary health care is
 Promotive
 Protective
 Preventive
 Restorative and
 Rehabilitative
to every citizen of the country within available resources so that the individuals and
communities are assured of productivity, social well being and enjoyment of life.
Health services based on primary health care shall include among other things the
following;
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= Education concerning prevailing health problems and the methods of controlling them
= Promotion of food supply and proper nutrition
= Maternal and child care including family planning
= Immunization against the major infectious diseases
= Prevention and control of locally endemic and epidemic diseases
= Provision of essential drugs and supplies
Nigeria has a three tier system of health care namely: Primary Health Care, Secondary
Health Care, and Tertiary Health Care.

 Primary Health Care

Provision of health care at this level is solely the responsibility of the local
government with the support of state ministries of health and within the overall
national health policy. Private medical practitioners also provide health care at
this level
 Secondary Health care
This level of health care provides specialized services to patients referred from the
primary health care level through out-patient and in-patient services of the
hospitals for general medical, surgical, pediatric patients and community health
services. Secondary health care is available at district, divisional, and zonal levels
of the states. Adequate supportive services such as laboratory, diagnosis, blood
bank, rehabilitation and physiotherapy are also provided.
 Tertiary Health Care
This level of health care consists of highly specialized services provided by
teaching hospitals, and other specialist hospitals which provide care for specific
diseases such as orthopedic, eye, psychiatric, maternity, and pediatric cases. Care
is taken to ensure an even distribution of these hospitals. Also, appropriate
support services are incorporated into the development of these tertiary facilities
to provide effective referral services. Similarly, selected centers are encouraged to
develop special expertise in advantaged modern technology to serve as resource
for evaluating and adapting these new developments in the context of local needs
and opportunities.
To further the overall national health policy, government of the federation work closely
with voluntary agencies, private practitioners, and other non-governmental organizations
to ensure that services provided by those agencies are in line with those of the
government
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Crime prevention, control, and Management

Crime is a term used to define specific acts and behaviours which the society has legally
prohibited. It is considered to be attitudes and behaviours that are deviant from
established societal norms and values. Some of these prohibited acts are stealing, rape,
and arson etc.
For a crime to occur there must be desire to commit it and an opportunity to complete it.

Factors that cause criminal activities

a) The social pathologist believe that a sick society produces
sick individuals
b) Personal maladjustments according to Smith (1911) like
sickness, lack of education, and immorality due to poverty
may cause deviance.
c) The abnormalities in the society, due to unequal
distribution of social statuses, and economic opportunities
become sources of crime
d) The restriction of individuals from achieving stated goals to
success makes them to achieve such through illegal means
e) Poverty and inequality can also be some of the factors

Strategy for crime prevention

In theory, preventing crime is quite simple. Eliminate either or both components of crime.
(The desire to commit the crime and the opportunity to complete it)

Conditional factors for criminality and the systematic approaches to preventing it

A B C
Factors associated with social Factors associated with Factors associated with target of the
structure potential offender criminal
1. Poverty Desire Availability
2. Political, social, and Opportunity Accessibility
economic inequality
Source: The Author. 2010
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Unemployment:
This is a situation where a person is willing to work, but no work he is capable of doing is
available. It might not necessarily be due to lack of vacancies but at times the applicant
lacks the required skills for the job.
Unemployment is a common trend in Nigeria, and it can be classified as follows;
1. Demand- deficiency unemployment
2. Frictional unemployment
3. Seasonal unemployment
4. Technological unemployment
5. Structural unemployment and
6. Voluntary unemployment
7. Cyclical unemployment

(6) THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SOME MAJOR

INSTITUTIONS/ORGANISATIONS TO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Various organizations and institutions have overtime contributed to economic and social
development. Some of these organizations/institutions are domestic, while others are
foreign; while some are governmental, others are non-governmental. Some like
(Agricultural Development Project, River Basins Development Authority, National
Fadama Development Project, World Bank, and Nigerian Bank for Commerce and
Industries) are focused on people’s economic improvement, food security, community
development, poverty alleviation, land and environmental development, others like
National Directorate for Employment, Family Economic Advancement Progamme,
Family Health International, and Federal Mortgage Bank etc are focused on social
development.

In this course, we shall briefly discuss the following;

The World Bank

The World Bank is a conglomerate of three institutions namely; The International Bank
for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Financial Corporation
(IFC), and the International Development Association (IDA). The World Bank was
established at a conference which held at Bretton Woods in the United States in 1944.
The main objectives for the establishment of the World Bank were,
a. To reconstruct the devastated Europe after the Second World War
b. The development of the backwardness of the world.
The magnitude of the two problems above was felt in such a way that it became
imperative to mobilize and channel resources beyond the scope of private and other
governmental institutions.
In order to achieve the above feat, the World Bank gives a long term loan for
developmental activities particularly in third world countries.

Prerequisites for obtaining World Bank Loans

i. A Memorandum of Understanding must be signed between the Bank, and the
borrowing nation
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ii. Loans obtained must be for productive purposes, which will stimulate
economic growth
iii. Borrowing countries must be capable of repayment
iv. Government of the borrowing nation must serve as a guarantor
v. Benefiting countries must be members of the United Nations

Nigeria as a member of the United Nations has benefited from so many World Bank
sponsored projects ranging from Agriculture, Health, Education, Science and
Technology, Environment, Power and Energy, and Poverty Alleviation

The National Fadama Development Project

Currently in its third phase (FADAMA III), the National Fadama Development Project is
a World Bank sponsored Agricultural Project, through which farmers obtain matching
grants to sustain ably increase their income, reduce rural poverty, increase food security,
and contribute to the achievements of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The
project aims at sustainably increasing the incomes of the Fadama resource users by
directly delivering resources to the beneficiary communities, efficiently and effectively,
and empowering them to collectively decide on how the resources are allocated and
managed for their livelihood activities and to participate in the design and execution of
the subproject.
Resources are called matching grants because they are recapitalization fees paid to the
Fadama Community Associations (FCAs) on non refundable grounds. This is because the
FCAs being the apex body of the Fadama User Groups (FUGs) pay a part of the total cost
of the subproject.
The Fadama Development Project has the following components;
a. Capacity building support for community associations, and local governments
b. Small Community Owned Infrastructure
c. Advisory services and inputs support
d. Support to Agricultural Development Programmes (ADPs)
e. Productive Asset Acquisition for individual groups and
f. Participatory Project Management, Monitoring and Control.
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Topic (7) LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN SOCIAL POLICY FORMULATION

A local government is a government body created by law or authority that administers at

the local level. It is a representative government at the lowest level of government. This
entails that it represents the central government at the lowest level of government as it is
in Nigeria. Others see it as delegated power or authority. According to B.C. Nwanko
(1995), “It is a statutory body that can sue and be sued for”. It can also be defined as the
government at the grass root level, or a semi-autonomous body created for the planning
and executing of policies at the local level.
The local government system in Nigeria is found in the Fourth (4th) schedule/order of the
1999 Constitution, as its functions are stated in section 7 (1) of the Constitution.

In the formulation of socio-economic policies, the three tiers of government in Nigeria

interrelate as provided in the constitution. Thus the Exclusive list (Defence, Currency,
Immigration, Customs and Excise etc) is basically meant for the Federal government, the
Concurrent list (Education, Agriculture, and Health etc) for both Federal and State
governments, and the Residual list for State government. Matters in the concurrent and
residual lists also include the local government.
The interrelatedness can be further divided into the following as opined by Harold
Adelfer (1979):
 Federal-State relations
 State-Federal relations
 Federal-State-Local relations
 Local-Federal relations
 Local-State relations
 State-Local relations
Drawing from the above assertion, the local government performs the following functions
which are related to socio-economic development;
i. Construction and maintenance of markets
ii. Construction and maintenance of culverts and drainages
iii. Collection of taxes, levies, and fares
iv. Formulation of bye-laws
v. Provision of Health care services (Primary Health Care)
vi. Provision and support to Educational programmes (Adult literacy Classes)
vii. Construction and maintenance of Cemeteries
viii. Women and Youth development programmes
ix. Mobilization of grassroots support for state and national programmes e.g
(Immunization, Census, and Elections etc).
x. Naming of roads and streets
xi. Registration of births and deaths
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Topic (8) UNERSTANDING THE POLITICS OF REVENUE ALLOCATION

Revenue Allocation entails the distribution of funds among the tiers of government and
special agencies, ministries, and parastatals of the government.
Like most Federal Systems, Nigeria has a revenue distribution system in which the
National government shares revenues with the state and local governments (Vertical
allocation). Much of the revenue observed Adedotun Philips (2008), is derived from
Petroleum taxes, Mining and Rents royalties. Various proportions of the revenue are
distributed to the state and local governments under a revenue allocation system using
different formulas.
Revenue allocation in Nigeria is problematic, but overtime, it has been driven by political
considerations and formulas such as geographical (jurisdictional) population, and state
equality rather than factors associated with economic development imperatives.
Two types of Revenue Allocation exist. That is the Vertical and horizontal allocations.
The vertical allocation is for the Federal, State, and Local governments, while the
horizontal is for the states and local governments, which include proxies like equality,
population, internal revenue generated, land mass, rural road, inland water ways,
education, potable water, and Health. However, the most controversial issue has been the
allocation in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria, where bulk of Nigeria’s revenue is
generated.
Though since the Philipson Commission of 1946, and the Danjuma National Revenue
Mobilisation Commission of 1990, other principles as proposed by the Revenue
Mobilization, and Fiscal Commission (RMAFC) were submitted with the Federal
Government getting 53.21%, States 31.10%, and Local Government 15.21%, as at 2009.
Where in the actual fact 6.5% was built into the allocation of the Federal government’s
special funds, leaving the Federal government with only 47.19% as its rightful due. The
6.5% is further divided as follows: Ecological fund 1.50%, Solid Mineral 1.75%,
National Reserve Fund 1. 50% and Agricultural Development Fund 1.75%.
Currently, the Federal government is getting 52%, State 22%, Local government 20%,
with 13% on derivation.

Some Problems of Revenue Allocation in Nigeria

The following are some of the myriad of problems surrounding Revenue allocation in
Nigeria.
ii) The politics of Resource Control
ii) Corruption and embezzlement of disbursed funds
iii) Mono-cultural economy, and inability to diversify the
economy
iv) State-local Government joint statutory account, and
v) Incomprehensive derivation formula
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Bibliography

Adelfer, H. (1972). Understanding Local Government,

Cambridge University Press, UK.
Almomd, G. and Verba, S. (1963). The Civic Culture: Political attitudes and Democracy
among five nations. Princeton University Press
Princeton, USA
Dlakwa, D. Haruna (2004). Lecture notes on Public Policy Analysis (Unpublished)
Department of Public Administration, University of
Maiduguri, Nigeria
Ikelegbe, A.O. (1996). Government and Politics: An Introductory and Comparative
Perspective, Uri Publishers, Benin City, Nigeria
Mbaya, M. Paul (1997). A Handbook of Planning
MC Publications, Kano, Nigeria
Nwanko, B.C. (1990). Authority in Government, Diamond Publishers, Makurdi, Nigeria
Obasanjo, O. (2004). NEEDS Policy Document. A Publication of the National Planning
Commission, Abuja, Nigeria
Ojo, O.O (1982). Advanced Level Economics
Onibonoje Press Nigeria Ltd. Ibadan, Nigeria
Okunola. (2002). http: File; Social Development policies in Nigeria
Sutcliffe, A. H. (1982). Industrial Development in America,
McGraw Hill, New York, USA

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