IGCSE REVISION NOTES

UNIT 1 : FORCES AND MOTION

1.1 Use the following units: kilogram(kg), metre(m),
metre/second (m/s), metre/second^2 (m/s^2),
newton per kilogram (N/kj), kilogram metre
second(kg m/s)

●​ Unit of mass - kilogram(kg)

●​ Unit of distance - metre(m)
●​ Unit of speed or velocity - Metre per
second(m/s)
●​ Unit of acceleration - Metre per
second^2(m/s^2)
●​ Unit of force - Newton(N)
●​ Unit of time - second(s)
●​ Unit of gravitational acceleration - Newton per
kilogram(N/kg)
●​ Unit of momentum - kilogram metre per
second(kg m/s)

1.2 Understand and use distance time graphs

Distance = How far you have travelled not taking

changes in your direction of travel into account.

Here, An object changes it’s position from A to B. So

the distance travelled by the object is AB
Displacement = The distance travelled in a specified
direction

Here, another object changes it’s position from C to

D through curved path but the displacement will be
the straight distance from C to D.

DISTANCE-TIME GRAPH (d-t graph)

●​ Gradient or slope of a distance time graph

gives use speed
●​ This means, speed = gradient = distance/time :
If object is moving 3 km in 3 sec. , then speed =
3/3 m/s or 1 m/s
●​ A positive gradient (line heading up) of the
displacement-time graph indicates that the
car is moving in the same direction as the
displacement
●​ A negative gradient(line heading down) of the
displacement-time graph indicates that the
 car is moving in the opposite direction to the
displacement.
●​ A zero gradient of the displacement-time
curve shows that the car is stationary.

1.4 Recall the relationship between average speed,

distance and time

Average speed = distance moved/ time taken or

speed = rate of change of distance

=> v = d/t

**THE RATE OF DISTANCE TRAVELLED = SPEED

**THE RATE OF DISPLACEMENT TRAVELED =

VELOCITY

1.5

1.6 Recall and use the relationship between

acceleration, velocity and time

Acceleration = change in velocity/ time taken

=> a = (v-u)/t

1.7 Interpret velocity-time graphs

BLUE part = As time increases, the speed increases.

This shows acceleration. => positive gradient
BLACK part = As time increases, the speed does not
change. This means that there is “0” acceleration.

RED part = As time increases, the speed decreases.

This shows deceleration. => negative gradient

1.8 Determine acceleration from the gradient of a

velocity−time graph

By definition, acceleration = velocity/time. So the

steepness or gradient or slope of d-t graph will give
us acceleration. This means:

If velocity = 20 metre and time is 20 seconds, then

acceleration = 20m/20s = 1 m/s^2

1.9 Determine the distance travelled from the area

between the graph and the time axis

Area under the graph of a velocity time graph gives

us DISTANCE travelled

Here,

Area of the 1st triangle = ½ * 4 * 6 = 12

Area of the rectangle in between = 5 * 6 = 30

Area of the last triangle = ½ * 3 * 6 = 9

IN TOTAL AREA OF THE TRAPEZIUM = 50 UNIT^2

1.10 use the relationship between final speed, initial
speed, acceleration and distance moved:

(final speed)2 = (initial speed)2 + (2 × acceleration ×

distance moved)

=> v^2 = u^2 + (2 × a × s)

1.11 Express a force as a push or pull of one body or

another

A force of 1N makes a mass of 1 kg accelerate at

1m/s^2 . A force can change the way an object is
moving or change the shape of an object.

1.12 Identify different types of force such as

gravitational or electrostatic

1) Gravitational force or weight: The pull of earth

due to gravity.

2) Normal Reaction: Upward force that is equal in

magnitude but opposite in direction to another
force.

3) Air Resistance: The resistivity or drag in the air

while an object moves is called Air Resistance. For
example - When a parachutist open the parachute
the movement slows down for the opposite force
acting in it.

4) Upthrust: Upthrust force acts only on liquid or

air. For example- force that acts on a hot air
balloon

5) Magnetic: Magnetic force is the attraction force

between the poles of magnets. N=S

6) Electrostatic: Electrostatic force is the attraction

force between charges.

7) Tension: The pull at both ends of a stretched

spring ,string, or rope.
 8) Frictional force: The force produced when two
objects slide one over another is called frictional
force.

1.13 Distinguish between vector and scalar

quantities

Scalar quantities - have magnitude only but no

associated direction

Vector quantities - Quantities having both

magnitude and associated direction

SCALAR QUANTITIES VECTOR QUANTITIES

Mass Weight
Time Pressure
Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
Work Force
Energy Momentum
Power Acceleration
Density

1.14 Understand that force is a vector quantity

Force is a vector quantity due to the following

reasons -

1.​ It has magnitude i.e has the value of its size.

2.​ It has direction.
3.​ When applied force, an object moves with
particular motion in a fixed direction. E.g:
Gravitational force has one direction which is
downwards. Upthrust has the direction of
upwards.
1.15 Find the resultant force of forces that act along
a line

Forces which act along a straight line can be

added if the forces are in the same direction or
subtracted if the forces are in the opposite
direction. The force that you get after adding or
subtracting is called the resultant force. The
resultant force is a single force that has the same
effect as all the other forces combined.

TYPE 1 : ACTING IN THE SAME DIRECTION

Here, Two forces are acting on the object, which is

why it’s moving.

RESULTANT FORCE acting on the body = 3 + 4 = 7N

to the right.

TYPE 2 : ACTING IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION

Here, two forces are acting on the object, one on

the right and one on the left. Since the two forces
(3N and 5N) are not equal, we call this an
unbalanced force.

RESULTANT FORCE acting on the body = 5 - 3 = 2N

to the right.
Here, two forces are acting on the object, one on
the right and one on the left. Since the two forces
(3N and 3N) are equal, there is no unbalanced force
acting and the forces on both sides are balanced.
Hence the object is also not moving.

RESULTANT FORCE acting on the body = 3 - 3 = 0N

1.16 Friction is a force that opposes motion

Types of Friction -

1)​ Kinetic friction - The friction that occurs when

an object is in motion
2)​ Air resistance - acts on bodies moving through
air
3)​ Water resistance(Drag) - acts on bodies moving
through water
4)​Normal reaction - acts on bodies touching a
surface
5)​Tension - acts on stretches objects like
stretched spring

1.17 Recall and use the relationship between

between unbalanced force, mass and acceleration

Force = mass * acceleration

=> F = m*a

Here F is directly proportional to acceleration.

WHICH means if F increases, a will also increase

1.18 Recall and use the relationship between weight,

mass and g (gravitational field strength)

Weight is the pull of earth.

Weight = mass x gravitational acceleration

=> W =mg

Gravitational field strength(g) : The pull of planet

on an object of 1 kilogram is called gravitational
field strength. It is also denoted by g, where in earth
g= 10 m/s2 if there is no opposite force.

1.19 Know that stopping distance is the sum of

thinking distance and braking distance

1.20 describe the factors affecting vehicle stopping

distance including speed, mass, road condition
and reaction time

Stopping distance: The stopping distance is the

sum of Thinking distance and Braking distance.

Thinking distance: The distance a car travels after

seeing a hazard and before applying a brake

Braking distance– The distance travelled after the

brakes are applied and the car has decelerated to
rest.

The thinking distance depends on the following

factors-

1)Alcohol consumption

2)Visibility of the driver

3)Speed of the car

The braking distance depends on the following

factors-

1)Mass of the car ( Heavy car can experience a

longer braking distance)

2)Condition of the road( Wet roads can

proportionately increase the braking distance)

3)Speed of the car(The more the speed the more the

braking distance)

4)Tyre condition(If the tyre is rought, then there will

be less braking distance)

*Braking distance proportional to speed squared ∆s

∝ v2

1.21 Describe the factors acting on falling objects

and explain why falling objects reach a terminal
velocity

Forces that act on falling body

WEIGHT → the force of gravity pulling an object

down

AIR RESISTANCE/DRAG → acting in the opposite

direction to the direction of movement. It increases
as speed increases. Object accelerates as air
resistance is smaller than weight.

TERMINAL VELOCITY → maximum speed reached by

an object when falling through a medium eg air. It’s
reached when downward force of gravity = upward
air resistance force

EXMAPLE
At A : Velocity is 0 at start, so air resistance is 0 and
the unbalanced force is downwards.( due to the
weight of the parachutist)

At B : The velocity/ speed of the parachutist

increases, so the upward air resistance force
increases, and hence the resultant unbalanced
force acting downwards is now smaller.

At C : Velocity has increased to such a point that

upward air resistance force = weight, so the
unbalanced force is 0 and parachutist has reached
terminal velocity.

At D : The parachute is opened. This parachute has

a large S.A which encounters increased friction with
the air particles and so air resistance > weight. So
the unbalanced force is now upwards which
decreases the velocity/speed of the parachutist.

At E : As velocity decreases, resultant force acting

upwards becomes smaller so rate of deceleration
decreases.

At F : Eventually at F, the upward acting air

resistance becomes equal to weight and the
parachutist reaches a new terminal velocity that’s
lower than the previous t.v.
1.22 practical: investigate how extension varies with
applied force for helical springs, metal wires and
rubber bands

1.23 know that the initial linear region of a

force-extension graph is associated with Hooke’s
law

●​ Hooke’s Law states that extension is directly

proportional to force applied provided that
the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.​

●​ The law is expressed as:​

F=k * x​
Where:​

○​ F = Force applied to the spring​

○​ k = Spring constant (how stiff the spring

is)​

○​ x = Extension (how much the spring

stretches)​

●​ In a force-extension graph, the initial linear

region represents the part where the spring
obeys Hooke’s Law.​

○​ The graph is a straight line, showing a

directly proportional relationship
between force and extension.​

○​ This linear relationship only holds up to

the elastic limit, after which the spring
may not return to its original shape.
1.24 describe elastic behaviour as the ability of a
material to recover its original shape after the
forces causing deformation have been removed

●​ Elastic behaviour refers to a material's ability

to return to its original shape after the forces
causing deformation are removed.​

●​ When a material is deformed within its elastic

limit, it behaves elastically:​

○​ It stretches or compresses when a force is

applied.​

○​ Once the force is removed, the material

returns to its original shape.​

●​ If the material is stretched beyond its elastic

limit, it may not return to its original shape,
and permanent deformation occurs.

REMEMBER!​
—--> Elastic limit: The maximum amount of force or
extension a material can withstand before
permanent deformation.​

—---> Elasticity: The ability of a material to return to

its original shape after being stretched or
compressed.

1.25P Recall and use the relationship between

momentum, mass and velocity

Momentum = mass * velocity

=>p = m*v

1.26P Use the idea of momentum to explain safety

features
Examples-

1)Crumple zone

2)Air bags

3)Seat Belt

4)Soft knee pad

All these safety features increase the rate of

change of momentum in an accident.

How these safety features help avoid using an

accident from Momentum, Acceleration and
Pressure explanation (According to MS points) -

Momentum:​
Force is defined as the rate of change of
momentum:​
F= change in momentum/ time taken ​
For the same change in momentum, increasing the
time during which a body is decelerating which
reduces the force. For example, bending the knees
when landing increases the time over which
momentum changes, so the force on the knee is
reduced.

Acceleration:​
Acceleration is defined as:​
a= change in velocity/ time taken

For the same change in velocity, increasing the time

reduces acceleration. Since F=ma , reducing
acceleration also reduces the force on the knee.

Pressure:​
Pressure is defined as:

P = F/A
For the same force, increasing the contact area
reduces pressure on the knee. For example, using
padding or softer surfaces increases area and
therefore reduces pressure and stress on the joint.

1.27P use the conservation of momentum to

calculate the mass, velocity or momentum of
objects

Conservation of momentum : Total momentum

before an event/collision is equal to the total
momentum after an event/collision provided that
there are no external forces acting on the bodies

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

1.28P use the relationship between force, change in

momentum and time taken:

Force = change in momentum/time taken

=> F = (mv - mu) / t

1.29P demonstrate an understanding of Newton’s

third law

Newton’s 3rd law: “For every action there is an

equal and opposite reaction.”

Newton’s third law states four characteristics of

forces: 1) Forces always occur in pairs (action and
reaction force.)

2)The action and reaction are equal in magnitude.

3)Action and reaction act opposite to one another.

4)Action and reaction act on different bodies.

5)Action and reaction do not cancel each other

1.30P know and use the relationship between the
moment of a force and its perpendicular distance
from the pivot:

moment = force × perpendicular distance from the

pivot

=> p = m*v

It is measured in Nm(newton meter)

There are two types of moment:

(i) Clockwise moment & (ii) Anti-clockwise moment

When a force causes an object to turn in a

clockwise direction, it is called a Clockwise Moment.
When a force causes an object to turn in an
anti-clockwise direction, it is called a Anti-clockwise
moment

1.31P know that the weight of a body acts through its

centre of gravity

Mass is the amount of matter an object has. Every

part of an object forms part of its overall mass. But
when we try to balance an object on a point, there
will only be one place where it will balance. You can
therefore think of the mass of an object being
concentrated at this point, known as the centre of
mass or gravity. If we support the centre of gravity
of the object, the object won’t fall no matter how
wide it is. Because the moment of the all sides are
balanced and there will be no clockwise or
anti-clockwise movement.

1.32P use the principle of moments for a simple

system of parallel forces acting in one plane
Principle of moment : When a system is in
equilibrium, total sum of clockwise moment equals
the total sum of anticlockwise moment

Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

=> F1d1 = F2d2

Where:

●​ F1 and F2 are forces

●​ d1 and d2 are their respective distances from
the pivot

1.33P understand how the upward forces on a light

beam, supported at its ends, vary with the position
of a heavy object placed on the beam

A)​Here in the first figure, when the object is

placed in the middle of the beam, the upward
forces on the ends of the beam are same as
each other. In other words, they are balanced.

B)​As it is moved along the beam, the upward

forces at the ends of the beam will change. If
it’s placed near the left end like the second
 figure, then the left end will experience more
upward force (to balance the moment created
by the weight) while the right end will
experience less force.

60 N here is the anticlockwise moment while 20 N is

the clockwise moment which adds together to give
80 N which is the weight of the object)

UNIT 2 : ELECTRICITY
2.1 use the following units: ampere (A), coulomb (C),
joule (J), ohm (Ω), second (s), volt (V) and watt (W)

●​ Unit of current: ampere (A)

●​ Unit of charge: coulomb (C)
●​ Unit of energy: Joule (J)
●​ Unit of resistance: ohm (Ω)
●​ Unit of time: second (s)
●​ Unit of voltage or potential difference: volt (V)
●​ Unit of Power: watt (W)

2.2 understand how the use of insulation, double

insulation, earthing, fuses and circuit breakers protects
the device or user in a range of domestic appliances

1)Insulation - Some appliances are cased with insulators

like plastic rather than metal to prevent user from
receiving shock. This casing is called insulation.
2)Double Insulation: Some appliances are double
insulated; as well as all their wiring being insulated the
outer casing of the appliances is also made of an
insulating material. This means there is no chance of
an electric shock from the casing – double insulation is
often used with electric kettles and power tools like
electric drills.

3)Earthing: Many appliances have a metal casing. This

should be connected to earth wire so that if live wire
touches case, it provides a low resistance path to the
ground. So, larger current in the Earth wire, hence fuse
wire melts, thus stopping current flow.

4)Fuses: Fuse is a safety device usually in the form of a

cylinder or cartridge which contains a thing piece of
wire made from a metal that has low melting point.If
current in excess flows, the fuse wire melts and breaks
the circuit thus stopping current flow.

The most common are 3A, 5A and 13A. The fuse should
be rated at a slightly higher current than the device
needs:

→ if the device works at 3A, use a 5A fuse

→ if the device works at 10A, use a 13A fuse

5) Circuit Breaker: Automatically switches off the current

when there’s an overload or fault in the circuit. However
it has two extra advantages than fuse -

I) RESETTABLE

II) CUTS OFF THE CIRCUIT FASTER

2.3 understand why a current in a resistor results in the

electrical transfer of energy and an increase in
temperature, and how this can be used in a variety of
domestic contexts

Normal wiring in the house have low resistance and the

current pass through them easily. Heating elements like
nichrome wire have high resistance. When current flows
through them current cannot pass, and the energy is
transferred to heat energy (as electrons lose energy
due to electron collision with the lattic ions in the coil)
and the element heats up.

It is also used in the lights – normal light bulbs have a

very thin filament which gets so hot when current
passes through it that it glows white.

We use the heating effect of current in electric kettle,

iron, filament lamps, fan heaters, hair dryers etc

2.4 know and use the relationship between power,

current and voltage:

power = current × voltage

=> P = I*V

2.5 use the relationship between energy transferred,

current, voltage and time:

energy transferred = current × voltage × time

=> E = I × V x t

2.6 know the difference between mains electricity being

alternating current (a.c.) and direct current (d.c.) being
supplied by a cell or battery

Alternating current - Alternating current continuously

changes direction

Direct current - Direct current does not change

direction, flows in one direction only
2.7 explain why a series or parallel circuit is more
appropriate for particular applications, including
domestic lighting

Series Circuit:

●​ Only one switch is required to control all the

bulbs( on and off)
●​ if one bulb ( or other component) breaks, it
causes a gap in the circuit and all of the other
bulbs will go off
●​ the voltage supplied by the cell or mains supply is
“shared” between all the components, so the more
bulbs you add to a series circuit the dimmer they
all become.
●​ The larger the resistance of the component, the
bigger its “share of voltage”

Parallel Circuit:

●​ switches can be placed in different parts of the

circuit to switch each bulb on and off individually
or all together
●​ if one bulb (or other components) breaks, only the
bulbs on the same branch of the circuit will be
affected
●​ each branch of the circuit receives the same
voltage, so if more bulbs are added to a circuit in
the parallel they all stay bright

2.8 understand how the current in a series circuit

depends on the applied voltage and the number
and nature of other components

Series circuit: In a series circuit the current is the same

in all parts. Current is not used up as it passes around
a circuit. The size of the current is a series circuit
depends on the voltage supplied to it, and the number
and nature of the other components in the circuit. In a
circuit if more cell is attached, the current will increase
as more energy is being given to the electrons. If more
resistance is attached to the circuit the current will get
less. But current is same at all points in a series circuit.
Parallel circuit: In parallel circuit, current varies with the
resistance and voltage. Voltage are same at all
branches

2.9 describe how current varies with voltage in

wires, resistors, metal filament lamps and diodes,
and how to investigate this experimentally

a) Resistors and wires obey Ohm’s law. Current, I, is

proportional to voltage, v, and the graphs are straight
lines which pass through the origin

b) The resistance of a filament lamp increases as the

temperature of the filament increases

●​ The current increases at a proportionally slower

rate than the potential difference because:
○​ The current causes the filament in the lamp
to heat up
○​ As the filament gets hot, its resistance
increases due to the collisions between the
electrons and metal ions in the wire
○​ This opposes the current, causing it to
increase at a slower

c) Diodes have a very large resistance when voltage is

applied in the ‘wrong’ direction – this is shown by the
horizontal line when the voltage is negative. When the
voltage is in the ‘right’ direction (forward biased), when
it reaches around 0.7v, the resistance drops to a small
value – the graph curves and become very steep.

EXPERIMENT : To investigate how current varies with

voltage

2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing

resistance on the current in a circuit

We know, V = IR

=> R = V/I , which means resistance and current are

inversely proportional to each other.

This means,

If the resistance in a circuit increases, the current

flowing through the circuit decreases and if resistance
ina circuit decreases, the current flowing through the
circuit increases, assuming that the voltage remains
constant.

REMEMBER!

1)​ LONGER WIRE

2)​ THICKER WIRE
Both are responsible for INCREASING resistance

2.11 describe the qualitative variation of resistance of

light-dependent resistors (LDRs) with illumination and
thermistors with temperature

Light Dependant Resistors: An LDR is a light dependant

resistor. Its resistance changes with the intensity of
light. In dark condition LDRs contain few free electrons
and so have a high resistance. LDRs are often used in
light sensitive circuits in devices such as photographic
equipment, automatic lightning controls and burglar
alarms.

Thermistor: A thermistor is a temperature dependant

resistor. It is made from a semiconducting material
such as silicon or germanium. At room temperature the
number of free electrons is small and so the resistance
of a thermistor is large. If however if it is warmed the
number of the electrons increases and its resistance
decreases. Thermistors are often used in fire alarms
and thermostats.

2.12 know that lamps and LEDs can be used to

indicate the presence of a current in a circuit

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a special kind of diode

that glows when electricity passes through it. Most LEDs
are made from a semi-conducting material called
gallium arsenide phosphide. LED only allows current to
be flowed in one direction and will not light up if current
is in opposite direction.

2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage,

current and resistance:

voltage = current × resistance

=> V = I × R

2.14 know that current is the rate of flow of charge

Charge(Q) is measured in coulombs.Current is
measured in amperes(A). If 1 C of charge flows along a
wire, every second, the current passing the wire is 1A.

2.15 know and use the relationship between charge,

current and time:

charge = current × time

=> Q = I × t

2.16 know that electric current in solid metallic

conductors is a flow of negatively charged
electrons

Current is the flow of charge. One coulomb of charge is

equivalent of the charge carried by approximately six
million, million, million (6 x 1018) negative electrons.

Charge direction when connected to a battery In

conductors some electrons are free to drift. But the
number of electrons flowing in any one direction is
roughly equal to the number flowing in the opposite
direction. There is therefore no overall flow of charge.
However, if a cell or battery is connected across the
conductor, more of the electrons now flow in the
direction away from the negative terminal and towards
the positive terminal, than in the opposite direction.
There is now a net flow of charge.

2.17 understand why current is conserved at a junction

in a circuit

The total current entering a junction must equal the

total current leaving the junction.​

This happens because electric charge cannot be

created or destroyed—it just splits or combines at
junctions.​
Formula: If I1 and I2 are currents entering a junction,
then I3 is the current leaving the junction where,

I3 = I1 + I2

This ensures current conservation in any electrical

circuit.

2.18 know that the voltage across two components

connected in parallel is the same

In a parallel circuit, all components share the same

voltage across them.​

The voltage across two resistors connected in parallel

is the same, meaning if you connect two resistors in
parallel across a battery, both resistors experience the
same voltage.​
​
Example:​

●​ If a 12 V battery is connected to two resistors in

parallel, both resistors will have 12 V across them.​

The current through each resistor will depend on its

resistance, but the voltage across both will remain the
same.

2.19 calculate the currents, voltages and

resistances of two resistive components connected
in a series circuit

Example calculation:
2.20 know that: •

●​ voltage is the energy transferred per unit

charge passed
●​ the volt is a joule per coulomb

If the voltage across a component is 1 V, this means

that the component is changing 1 J of electrical energy
into a different kind of energy each time 1 C of charge
passes through it.

2.21 know and use the relationship between energy

transferred, charge and voltage:

energy transferred = charge × voltage

=>E = Q × V

2.22P identify common materials that are electrical

conductors or insulators, including metals and plastics

Conductors : Materials that allow electric current to flow

easily(e.g copper, gold aluminium)

Insulators : Materials that resist the flow of electric

current(e.g rubber, glass and plastic)

2.23P practical: investigate how insulating materials

can be charged by friction
2.24P explain how positive and negative electrostatic
charges are produced on materials by the loss and
gain of electrons

●​ Positive charge : When an object loses electron, it

becomes positively charge(+ve)
●​ Negative charge : When an object gains electron, it
becomes negatively charged(-ve)

2.25P know that there are forces of attraction between

unlike charges and forces of repulsion between like
charges

●​ Attraction : Opposite charges (positve-negative)

attract each other
●​ Repulsion : Like charges (positive-positive or
negative-negative) repel each other

2.26P explain electrostatic phenomena in terms of the

movement of electrons

Here’s how electrostatic phenomena can be

understood in terms of electron movement:

1. Charging by Friction

When two different materials are rubbed together,

electrons can be transferred from one material to the
other. This happens because different materials have
different tendencies to gain or lose electrons.

●​ Example: Rubbing a balloon on your hair.​

○​ Electrons move from your hair to the balloon.​

○​ The balloon gains extra electrons → becomes

negatively charged.​

○​ Your hair loses electrons → becomes

positively charged.

2. Charging by Conduction (Direct Contact)

When a charged object touches a neutral object,
electrons can move between them.

●​ If the charged object is negative (extra electrons),

some electrons will move to the neutral object.​

●​ If it is positive (electron deficiency), electrons will

be attracted from the neutral object.

2.27P explain the potential dangers of electrostatic

charges, e.g. when fuelling aircraft and tankers

In some situations the presence of static electricity can

be a disadvantage.

● As aircraft fly through the air, they can become

charged with static electricity. As the charge on an
aircraft increases so too does the potential difference
between it and earth. With high potential differences
her is the possibility of charges escaping to the earth
as a spark during refueling, which could cause an
explosion. The solution to this problem is to earth the
plane with a conductor as soon as it lands and before
refueling commences. Fuel tankers that transport fuel
on roads must also be earthed before any fuels is
transferred to prevent sparks causing a fire or
explosion.

● Television screens and computer monitors become

charged with static electricity as they are used. The
charges attract light uncharged particles-that is dust.

● Our clothing can, under certain circumstances

become charged with static electricity. When we remove
the clothes there is the possibility of receiving a small
electric shock as the charges escape to the earth.

● Workers handing electronic components must take

care not to become charged by static as this can easily
destroy expensive components. They wear earthing
straps and work on earthed metal benches to prevent
this.

2.28P explain some uses of electrostatic charges, e.g. in

photocopiers and inkjet printers

Photocopiers:

1.​ How it works:

Photocopiers use electrostatic charges to create copies

of documents.​

A drum inside the photocopier is positively charged

and exposed to light.

Where the light hits the drum, the charge is removed,

leaving behind a pattern of charges that represents the
document.​

2.​ Process:

A toner (which contains charged particles) is then

attracted to the areas with static charge on the drum.

The drum rotates and transfers the toner onto paper,

creating a copy of the document.

3.​ Electrostatic role:​

The electrostatic charges are what allow the toner

particles to stick to the paper in the right places.​

Inkjet Printers:

1. How it works:

Inkjet printers use electrostatic charges to guide tiny

drops of ink to the paper with great precision.
The printer electrically charges ink droplets, which are
then directed towards the paper using electrostatic
forces.​

2.Process:

Ink droplets are sprayed through tiny nozzles and

charged so that they are attracted or repelled by the
paper’s charge.

Positive or negative charges control the direction of the

droplets, allowing the printer to accurately form text or
images.​

3.Electrostatic role:​
The charged droplets are guided by electrostatic forces
to land on the paper in the correct locations, creating
the printed image.

UNIT 1 : WAVES
3.1 use the following units: degree (°), hertz (Hz),
meter (m), metre/second (m/s), second (s).

●​ Unit of an angle: degree (o )

●​ Unit of frequency: hertz (Hz)
●​ Unit of distance or wavelength: metre (m)
●​ Unit of speed/velocity: metre/second (m/s)
●​ Unit of time-period: second (s)

3.2 understand the difference between longitudinal

and transverse waves

Waves are a way of transferring energy from place to

place.They are of two types : mechanical waves and
electromagnetic waves. Mechanical waves can be of two
types
→ TRANSVERSE WAVE : Direction of wave vibration is
perpendicular to the direction the wave travels.
Example - water wave, radio wave

→ LONGITUDINAL WAVE : Direction os wave vibration is

parallel or antiparallel to the direction the wave
travels.Example - sound wave, seismic P wave

3.3 know the definitions of amplitude, wavefront,

frequency, wavelength and period of a wave

Amplitude - The maximum movement of particles from

their resting or equilibrium position.(A)

Wavefront - A line where all the vibrations are in phase

and same distance from the source

Wavelength - The distance between a particula rpoint

on a wave and the same point on the next wave is called
the wavelength

Frequency - The number of waves produced each

second by a source is Frequency.

Time period - The time it takes for a source to produce

on wave is called the time period

3.4 know that waves transfer energy and

information without transferring matter

Waves are means of transferring energy and

information from place to place. These transfers take
place with no matter being transferred. Mobile phones,
satellites etc. rely on waves.

Example: If you drop a large stone into a pond, waves

will be produced. The waves spread out from the point
of impact, carrying to all parts of the pond. But the
water in the pond does not move from the centre to the
edges

3.5 know and use the relationship between the speed,

frequency and wavelength of a wave:
wave speed = frequency × wavelength

=> v = f × λ

3.6 use the relationship between frequency and

time period:

frequency = 1/time period

=> f = 1/T

3.7 use the above relationships in different

contexts, including sound waves and
electromagnetic waves

P – 1: The period of a wave is 0.01 second.

What is its frequency?

Ans: Frequency = 1/T = 1/0.01s = 100 Hz

P – 2: The frequency of a wave is 250 Hz and the

wavelength is 0.02m. What is speed of the wave?

Ans: v = fλ = 250 Hz x 0.02s = 5 m/s

3.8 explain why there is a change in the observed

frequency and wavelength of a wave when its source is
moving relative to an observer and that this is known
as the Doppler effect

The Doppler Effect is the change in the observed

frequency and wavelength of a wave when the source of
the wave is moving relative to the observer.

🔹 When the source moves toward the observer:

●​ Each new wave is emitted from a position closer to
the observer.​

●​ This compresses the wavesfronts, so they come

closer together and get bunched up. And
distance between the wavefronts is wavelength, so
 wavelength decreases.​

●​ As a result frequency increases because v = f*

lambda​

○​ The sound becomes higher-pitched.​

○​ Light shifts toward the blue end of the

spectrum (called a blue shift).​

🔹 When the source moves away from the observer:

●​ Each wave is emitted from a position farther away
than the previous one.​

●​ This stretches the wavesfronts, so they are further

apart and wavelength increases​

●​ frequency decreases.​

○​ The sound becomes lower-pitched.​

○​ Light shifts toward the red end of the

spectrum (red shift).

3.9 explain that all waves can be reflected and

refracted

Reflection = when a wave bounces off a surface and

changes direction, staying in the same medium.

●​ The angle of incidence = angle of reflection

(measured from the normal).​

●​ The speed, frequency, and wavelength of the wave

stay the same.

Refraction= bending of a wave as it passes from one

medium to another, due to a change in speed and
wavelength.
 ●​ If a wave slows down (e.g. from air to glass), it
bends toward the normal.​

●​ If it speeds up (e.g. from water to air), it bends

away from the normal.​

●​ Frequency stays the same, but wavelength

changes.

3.10 know that light is part of a continuous

electromagnetic spectrum that includes radio,
microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray and
gamma ray radiations, and that all these waves
travel at the same speed in free space

1) they all transfer energy

2) they are all transverse waves

3) they all travel at speed of light in vacuum (3x108 m/s)

and does not require a medium to propagate

4) they can all be reflected, refracted and diffracted

3.11 know the order of the electromagnetic spectrum in

terms of decreasing wavelength and increasing
frequency, including the colours of the visible
spectrum
–>Increasing wavelength as we move to the right and
decreasing frequency as we move to right

A mnemonic to help : Run Miles In Very Unpleasent

Extreme Games

→ VISIBLE SPECTRUM - ROYGBIV( red -> orange -> yellow

-> green ->blue ->Indigo -> violet

3.12 explain some of the uses of electromagnetic

radiations

●​ Radio wave - broadcasting and communication,

oscillation of electrons in the wire
●​ Microwave - Cooking, communication and satellite
transmission, Increased KE/vibration of the water
molecules
●​ Infra-red - Cooking, thermal imaging, optical
fibres, television remote controls
●​ Ultraviolet - fluorescent lamps, Detecting forged
bank notes and disinfecting water
●​ X-rays - observing the internal structure of the
body
●​ Gamma rays - sterilising food and medical
equipment, Radiotherapy

3.13 explain the detrimental effects of excessive

exposure of the human body to electromagnetic
waves

●​ Infrared - skin burns

●​ Ultraviolet - damage to surface cells, snow
blindness, skin cancer
●​ Gamma - mutation or damage to the cells
●​ X - ray - cancer/mutation
●​ Microwave - internal heating of the body cells
●​ Radiowave
●​ Visible light - vision impairment
3.14 know that light waves are transverse waves and
that they can be reflected and refracted

Light waves are transverse wave that is emitted from

luminous (objects that emit their own light such as sun,
stars, fires, light bulbs etc.) or reflected from
non-luminous objects (objects which do not emit their
own light but are seen by their reflection of Light waves
are transverse wave and like all waves, they can be
reflected, refracted and diffracted.

3.15 use the law of reflection (the angle of incidence

equals the angle of reflection)

The law of REFLECTION states that -

—-> The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie
on the same plane

—-> The angle of incidence(theta i) is equal to the angle

of reflection(theta r)

3.16 draw ray diagrams to illustrate reflection and

refraction
 Labelled dia.

3.17 practical: investigate the refraction of light, using

rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks and triangular
prisms

3.18 know and use the relationship between refractive

index, angle of incidence and angle of refraction:

Refractive index = sin i/ sin r

=> n = sini/sinr

3.19 practical: investigate the refractive index of glass,

using a glass block(According to MS points)

1)​ At first, we will draw around a rectangular glass

block and shine a light towards the centre of the
straight edge of the rectangular block using a ray
box.
2)​ We will use a pencil to mark the positions of the
incident ray and refracted ray
3)​ Removing the block, we will draw the normal using
a pencil.
 4)​ Measure the angle of incidence as well as the
angle of refraction using a protractor and repeat
for different angles of i and r.
5)​ After that we will calculate the value of n using the
formula n = sini/sin r
6)​ To obtain mor accuracy, we can plot a graph of
sin i against sinr and find the refractive index from
the gradient of the graph.

3.20 describe the role of total internal reflection in

transmitting information along optical fibres and in
prisms

TIR = When light travels from an optically denser

medium to an optically rarer medium with angle of
incidence > critical angle and light gets reflected in the
denser medium

HOW helps in O.F -

Light enters the fibre at one end.

It hits the inner walls at a steep angle (greater than the

critical angle).

Instead of escaping, the light reflects completely off the

internal surface.
This process repeats over and over, allowing the light to
travel long distances with minimal loss

HOW helps in prisms -

Light enters the fibre at one end.

It hits the inner walls at a steep angle (greater than the

critical angle).

Instead of escaping, the light reflects completely off the

internal surface.

This process repeats over and over, allowing the light to

travel long distances with minimal loss

3.21 explain the meaning of critical angle c

The angle of incidence for which angle of refraction = 90

degree

3.22 know and use the relationship between critical

angle and refractive index:

sin(critical angle) = 1/refractive index

=> sinc = 1/n

3.23 know that sound waves are longitudinal waves that

can be reflected and refracted

3.24P know that the frequency range for human

hearing is 20–20 000 Hz

Human hearing capacity : 20 - 20000 Hz, can’t hear less

or more than that

3.25P practical: investigate the speed of sound in air

(According to MS points)

1)Stand a distance of more than 100 m away froma

friend

2) Measure the distance using a tape measure

3)Bang two pieces of wooden blocks together and
signal to the friend who will start the stopwatch when
the sound is produced and stop the stopwatch when he
hears the sound

4) Repeat this process at leat 6 times and calculate the

average time.

5) Then calculate the speed of sound using the formula

: v = d/t

3.27P practical: investigate the frequency of a sound

wave using an oscilloscope

MP1 Connect oscilloscope to the microphone. MP2

Adjust the oscilloscope to get a steady trace. MP3
Adjust time base to give a minimum of one complete
cycle on the screen. MP4 Measure the number of
squares for a number of complete cycles. MP5 Multiply
the number of squares by the time base.MP6 Use the
formula f = 1/t to calculate frequency.

3.28P understand how the pitch of a sound relates to

the frequency of vibration of the source

The sharpness or drollness of a sound is called its

pitch. The more something vibrates the higher
frequency. The higher frequency, the higher pitch. So
the more vibrations the higher pitch.

3.29P understand how the loudness of a sound relates

to the amplitude of vibration of the source

The bigger the vibration the higher the amplitude. The

higher the amplitude the louder the sound
UNIT 4 : ENERGY RESOURCES AND
ENERGY TRANSFER
4.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), joule (J),
metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2
(m/s2), newton (N), second (s), watt (W).

●​ Unit of mass: kilogram(kg)

●​ Unit of energy: joule(J)
●​ Unit of distance: metre(m)
●​ Unit of speed or velocity: metre/second (m/s)
●​ Unit of acceleration: metre/second2 (m/s)
●​ Unit of force: newton (N)
●​ Unit of time: second (S)
●​ Unit of power: watt(W)

4.2 describe energy transfers involving energy stores:

Light energy: The energy which is released from

luminous object is called light energy. E.g.: In a filament
lamp, electrical energy is converted to heat energy and
light energy.

Electrical energy: The energy of charged object is called

electrical energy. E.g.: In an electric generator, kinetic
energy is converted to heat and electrical energy.
Sound energy: The energy by which we can hear is
called sound energy. E.g.: Clapping our hands will
convert kinetic energy to sound and little amount of
heat energy.

Kinetic energy: The energy of a moving object is called

kinetic energy. E.g.: In a ceiling fan, electrical energy is
converted to kinetic energy.

Chemical energy: The energy which is released by

chemical reaction is called chemical energy. E.g: In a
motor car, chemical energy is converted to heat,
electrical and kinetic energy.
Nuclear energy: The energy which is released by nuclear
reaction is called nuclear energy. E.g.: Energy is nuclear
power stations.

Potential energy: The energy which is gained by

changing size, shape and position of an object is called
potential energy. E.g: Raise a ball 10m above ground, it
will gain gravitational potential energy.

4.3 use the principle of conservation of energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed.It is just

converted from one type to another

4.4 know and use the relationship between efficiency,

useful energy output and total energy output:

Efficiency = useful energy output/ total energy input *

100

4.5 describe a variety of everyday and scientific devices

and situations, explaining the transfer of the input
energy in terms of the above relationship, including
their representation by Sankey diagrams

Whenever we are transferring energy, proportion of

input energy is wasted. Like a lamp has input energy of
100J. It uses 10J to give light and the other 90J is wasted
as heat.

A sankey diagram is represented like this -

4.6 describe how thermal energy transfer may take
place by conduction, convection and radiation

There are 3 basic ways energy can transfer from place

to place -

A)​ CONDUCTION- transfer of thermal(heat) energy

through a substance by the vibration of atoms
within the substance. The substance itself does
not move. Example - while cooking kebabs, metal
skewers allow heat to be transferred to the parts
that are away from the heat.

B)​ CONVECTION- transfer of heat through (fluids or

gases) by the upward movement of warmer, less
dense regions of fluid.

C)​RADIATION- transfer of energy by infrared waves(

IR waves)

4.7 explain the role of convection in everyday

phenomena(written briefly)

Uses in-

i)Electric kettles

ii)Air conditioners

iii)Refrigerators

iv)Household water systems

4.8 explain how emission and absorption of radiation

are related to surface and temperature

The hotter an object is, the more infrared radiation it

emits per second. As temperature increases, the
intensity and frequency of radiation increase. So, hotter
objects are better emitters.​

Surface colour and texture:​

●​ Black, matte surfaces are better absorbers and

emitters of radiation.​

●​ White or shiny surfaces are poor absorbers and

emitters, but they are good reflectors.

SOO!

A shiny kettle stays warmer longer WHILE the heat sink,

being matte black loses heat rapidly to stop the
transistor from overheating.

4.10 explain ways of reducing unwanted energy transfer,

such as insulation

Use a vacuum: Conduction needs matter; used in

vacuum flasks, some types of double glazing etc.

● Use air: Air is a good insulating material. Many

materials like wool, feathers, furs etc. trap air so
convection current cannot form. This works because air
is a very poor conductor of heat. Houses use fibre glass
insulation and cavity walls to stop circulation by
convection).

● Use water: Wetsuits trap a layer of water around the

body because water is a poor conductor. Reduce heat
transfer by convection:

● Use a vacuum: Convection needs gases or liquids,

used in vacuum flasks, some types of double glazing,
etc.

● Use trapped gas or liquid. This restricts circulation,

which is necessary for convection to occur. The size of
gap between the sheets of glass is a compromise. A
narrow gap makes the effect of convection smaller, but
it allows a greater amount of heat transfer by
conduction.

4.11 know and use the relationship between work done,

force and distance moved in the direction of the force:

work done = force × distance moved

=> W = F × d

4.12 know that work done is equal to energy transferred

4.13 know and use the relationship between

gravitational potential energy, mass, gravitational field
strength and height:

gravitational potential energy = mass × gravitational

field strength × height

=>GPE = m × g × h

4.14 know and use the relationship: kinetic energy, mass

and speed

Kinetic energy = ½ * mass * speed^2

=> k = ½ m*v

4.15 understand how conservation of energy produces

a link between gravitational potential energy, kinetic
energy and work

An object of mass,m weights mxg newtons. So the

force,F, needed to lift is mg. If we raise the object
through a distance h, the work done on the object is
mgh. This is also the gain of GPE. When the object is
raised, it falls-it loses GPE but gains KE. At the end of
the fall, all the initial GPE is converted into KE. And
that’s how energy is conserved.

4.16 describe power as the rate of transfer of energy or

the rate of doing work
Power is the rate of transferring energy or doing work.
The Watt is the rate of transfer of energy of one joule
per second.

4.17 use the relationship between power, work done

(energy transferred) and time taken:

Power = work done/time taken

=> P = W/t

4.18P describe the energy transfers involved in

generating electricity using: • wind • water • geothermal
resources • solar heating systems • solar cells • fossil
fuels • nuclear power

4.16 describe the energy transfers involved in

generating electricity using:

●​ Wind: Winds are powered by the Sun's heat energy.

Wind is a renewable source of energy. Wind mills
have been used to grind corn and power
machinery like pumps drain lowland areas. Today,
wind turbines drive generators to provide
electrical energy. Here, kinetic energy is
transformed to electrical energy.
●​ Water is used to generate energy in three ways:
Hydroelectric power, Tidal power & Wave energy.
All the ways uses the same role using the
movement of water(K.E.) to rotate that generator
and produce electricity. In this casekinetic energy
is also transformed to electrical energy.
●​ Geothermal resources: Geothermal energy is heat
energy stored deep inside the Earth. The heat in
regions of volcanic activity was produced by the
decay of radioactive elements. The heated water
from the earth’s crust is used to rotate turbines in
generator. Here, heat energy is converted to
kinetic energy which is converted to electrical
energy.
●​ Solar heating systems: Solar heating panels
absorb thermal radiation and use it to heat water.
 The panels are placed to receive the maximum
amount of the Sun’s energy.This produce steam
which can be used to drive electricity generators.
●​ Solar cells: Solar energy directly converts light
energy into electrical energy.
●​ Fossil fuels: Fossil fuels are natural gas, oil and
coal. Those are burned which rotates the turbine
in the generator to produce electricity.
●​ Nuclear power: Nuclear fuels like uranium are
used in nuclear generator. The heat produced in
nuclear reaction is used to produce steam from
water which rotates the turbine and produce
electricity.

4.19P describe the advantages and disadvantages of

methods of large-scale electricity production from
various renewable and non-renewable resources

ADV. DISADV.
WIND ENERGY Relatively cheap Only produce energy when it is
to set up windy

Clean – no waste Can be used only in certain

products places

Relatively Can be an eyesore

efficient at
converting Can produce noise pollution
energy into
electricity
Wave energy Continuously Expensive to set up ● Only
available ● Clean suitable in certain locations
- no waste
products ●
Moderately
efficient
Tide energy Continuously Damaging to environment
available
Expensive to set up
Clean – no waste
products Only suitable in certain
geographical locations
 Efficient

Solar energy Clean-no waste Expensive in terms of amount of

products energy produced

Not very efficient method

Energy supply is not

continuously available

Best suited to climates with low

amounts of cloud cover
Geothermal Clean- no waste Suited only to geographic
energy products locations with relatively thing
‘crust’ or high volcanic activity
Can provide
direct heating as
well as
heat/steam to
drive electricity
generators

Moderate
start-up costs
Hydroelectric Clean, no waste Need large reservoirs, which may
power station products displace people or wildlife

Continuously Can only be built in hilly areas

avaliable with plenty of rainfall
Fossil Fuel Readily available Expensive to build

Easy to produce Dangerous

UNIT 6: MAGNETISM
5.1 use the following units: degrees Celsius ( oC),
Kelvin (K), joule (J), kilogram/metre3 (kg/m3 ),
kilogram/metre3 (kg/m3 ), metre (m), metre2 (m2 ),
metre3 (m3 ), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2
(m/s2 ), newton (N), Pascal (Pa).

●​ Unit of temperature: degrees Celsius ( C)

●​ Unit of temperature: Kelvin (K)
●​ Unit of mass: kilogram (kg)
●​ Unit of density: kilogram/meter³ (kg/m3 )
●​ Unit of distance: metre (m)
●​ Unit of Area: meter² (m²)
●​ Unit of Volume: meter^3 (m³)
●​ Unit of Speed: metre/second (m/s)
●​ Unit of Acceleration: metre/second² (m/s²)
●​ Unit of force: newton (N)
●​ Unit of Pressure: Pascal (Pa)

5.2P use the following unit : joules/kilogram degree

celsius (J/kg degree C)

5.3 know and use the relationship between density,

mass and volume:

Density = mass/volume

=> p = m/v

5.5 know and use the relationship between

pressure, force and area
Pressure = force/ area

=> p = F/A

5.6 understand how the pressure at a point in a gas

or liquid at rest acts equally in all directions
Pressure in liquids and gases act equally in all
directions. For example - if 4 holes are made at the
same depth in can, when filled with water, the water
flowing from these holes will move at same speed

5.7 know and use the relationship for pressure

difference:
pressure difference = height × density × gravitational
field strength

=> p = h × ρ × g

5.8P explain why heating a system will change the

energy stored within the system and raise its
temperature or produce changes of state

Heating a system adds energy to the system,

specifically thermal energy.​

●​ Thermal energy is stored as the internal energy of

the particles (atoms or molecules) in the system.​

Two effects of heating:

1.​ Increase in temperature:

When the system is heated, the particles gain kinetic

energy. As a result, they move faster, and the
temperature increases. This is the case for most
substances when they are heated at constant pressure.​

2.​ Change in state (phase transition):

Heating can also cause the particles to overcome the

forces holding them together, leading to a change in
state. This is especially relevant during melting, boiling,
or evaporation.​
During a change of state, the temperature may remain
constant, but the energy is used to overcome the forces
between particles rather than increasing the
temperature.

5.9P describe the changes that occur when a solid

melts to form a liquid, and when a liquid evaporates or
boils to form a gas

Melting (Solid to Liquid):

●​ Melting occurs when a solid absorbs heat energy,

causing its particles to vibrate more and
eventually overcome the forces that hold them in
fixed positions.​

○​ The temperature remains constant during

melting, as the energy is used to break
bonds between particles, not to increase the
temperature.​

○​ Once the bonds are broken, the solid turns

into a liquid.​

Evaporation (Liquid to Gas):

●​ Evaporation occurs at the surface of a liquid

when molecules gain enough energy to break free
from the liquid and enter the gas phase.​

○​ This process can happen at any temperature

and happens gradually.​

○​ During evaporation, the temperature of the

liquid decreases because the most energetic
particles leave, taking energy away from the
liquid.​

Boiling (Liquid to Gas):

 ●​ Boiling occurs when a liquid reaches its boiling
point, at which temperature the entire liquid gains
enough energy for particles to break free and
become a gas.​

○​ The temperature remains constant during

boiling, even as heat is continuously added.​

○​ Boiling happens throughout the liquid, not

just at the surface, and it occurs at a specific
temperature (e.g., 100°C for water at 1
atmosphere of pressure).​

5.10P describe the arrangement and motion of particles

in solids, liquids and gases

SOLID LIQUID GAS

REGULAR IRREGULAR RANDOM

CANT MOVE, CAN MOVE PARTICLES CAN

VIBRATE ONLY AROUND AND MOVE FREELY
SLIDE OVER ONE
ANOTHER

LEAST KINETIC MORE K.E THAN MOST K.E

ENERGY SOLID

STRONG STRONG VERY WEAK

TIGHTLY PACKED TEND TO STAY FAR APART

CLOSER
TOGETHER

3D STRCUTURE TAKES THE NO FIXED SHAPE

SHAPE OF THE
CONTAINER

CAN’T BE CANT BE CANT BE EASILY

COMPRESSED COMPRESSED COMPRESSED
EASILY EASILY
5.12P know that specific heat capacity is the energy
required to change the temperature of an object by
one degree Celsius per kilogram of mass (J/kg °C)

5.13P use the equation:

change in thermal energy = mass × specific heat

capacity × change in temperature

=> ΔQ = m × c × ΔT

5.14P practical: investigate the specific heat capacity of

materials including water and some solids(According
to MS points)

5.15 explain how molecules in a gas have random

motion and that they exert a force, and hence a
pressure, on the walls of a container

The kinetic theory tells us that gas molecules obey

Newton’s Laws: they travel with a constant velocity until
they collide, exerting a force on the object with which
they collide. If we imagine gas molecules in a closed
container, the molecules will collide with the walls of the
container with some frequency, each time exerting a
small force on the walls of the container. The more
frequently these molecules collide with the walls of the
container, the greater the net force and hence the
greater the pressure they exert on the walls of the
container.

Balloons provide an example of how pressure works. By

forcing more and more air into an enclosed space, a
great deal of pressure builds up inside the balloon. In
the meantime, the rubber walls of the balloon stretch
out more and more, becoming increasingly weak. The
balloon will pop when the force of pressure exerted on
the rubber walls is greater than the walls can withstand.

5.16 understand why there is an absolute zero of

temperature, which is –273 °C

Temperature affect the pressure of particles of gases.

The higher the temperature, the higher the energy in
particles and more the pressure. As we cool the gas, the
pressure keeps decreasing. The pressure of the gas
cannot become less than zero. The temperature at
which the pressure of the gas is decreased to 0, that
temperature is called absolute zero. It is approximately
–273 degree C

5.17 describe the Kelvin scale of temperature and be

able to convert between the Kelvin and Celsius scales

Temperature in K = Temperature in celsius + 273

Temperature in C = Temperature in kelvin - 273

5.18 understand why an increase in temperature results

in an increase in the average speed of gas molecules

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy

of the molecules in a gas. As the temperature of the
gas increases:

●​ The kinetic energy of the gas molecules increases.​

●​ Since kinetic energy (Ek) is directly related to the

speed of the molecules (v) by the equation:

Where:​

●​ m = mass of the molecule​

●​ v = speed of the molecule​

●​ Ek = kinetic energy
As the temperature rises, the molecules gain more
energy, and thus, their average speed increases.

5.19 know that the Kelvin temperature of a gas is

proportional to the average kinetic energy of its
molecules

5.20 explain, for a fixed amount of gas, the qualitative

relationship between: • pressure and volume at
constant temperature • pressure and Kelvin
temperature at constant volume

For a fixed amount of gas:

Pressure and Volume at Constant Temperature (Boyle’s

Law):

●​ At constant temperature, the pressure and volume

of a gas are inversely proportional.​

->As the volume of the gas decreases, the molecules are

confined to a smaller space, and they collide with the
walls of the container more often, which increases the
pressure.

->Conversely, if the volume increases, the pressure

decreases.

Mathematical form of Boyles law -

Where, P = Pressure

V = Volume

5.21 use the relationship between the pressure and

Kelvin temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant
volume:
=> P1/T1 = P2/T2

5.22 use the relationship between the pressure and

volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant
temperature:
=> P1V1 = P2V2

UNIT 6 : MAGNETISM
6.1 use the following units: ampere (A), volt (V) and
watt (W)

●​ Unit of current: ampere (A)

●​ Unit of potential difference: volt (V)
●​ Unit of power: watt (W)

6.2 understand that magnets repel and attract

other magnets and attract magnetic substances
Magnets are able to attract objects made from
magnetic materials such as iron, steel, etc. Other
objects like plastic, rubber are non-magnetic
substance. They can’t attract magnet.

Magnets have two poles: North Pole and South Pole.

North Pole and South Pole attract each other. Similar
poles like North Pole and North Pole or South Pole and
South Pole repel each other.

6.3 describe the properties of magnetically hard and

soft materials

Properties of magnetically hard materials

i)Needs time to become magnetized

ii)Once magnetized, the magnetism remains

permanently

iii)They are known as permanent magnets

Eg. steel

Properties of magnetically soft materials

i)Easily gets magnetized

ii)Loses magnetism easily

iii)Known as temporary magnets

Eg. iron

6.4 understand the term 'magnetic field line'

Volume of space where magnetism can be detected

6.5 know that magnetism is induced in some materials

when they are placed in a magnetic field

If you keep a material in a magnetic field, eventually

after a period of time, that material will be magnetized.
Example:

A)Place a magnetically soft material close to a strong

magnet. The soft iron bar becomes an induced magnet
with the end nearer the magnet having opposite
polarity to that of the magnet.

B)A steel bar is placed inside a coil. After a while the bar
becomes magnetized due to the magnetic induction
from solenoid. The polarities of the magnet depend on
the direction of current flow

6.6 practical: investigate the magnetic field pattern for

a permanent bar magnet and between two bar
magnets

1)Place the magent on top of a piece of paper

2)Sprinkle some iron fillings on the piece of paper. Tap

the paper gently and the iron fillings will align
themselves in the shape of a magnetic field

6.7 describe how to use two permanent magnets to

produce a uniform magnetic field pattern

By bringing two opposite poles of two bar magnets

bringing closer to each other
6.8 understand that an electric current in a conductor
produces a magnetic field round it

When a current flows through a wire a magnetic field is

created around the wire. This phenomenon is called
electromagnetism. The field around the wire is quite
weak and circular in shape. The direction of the
magnetic field depends up the direction of the current
and can be found using the right-hand grip rule.

6.9 describe the construction of electromagnets

We will need a coil of insulated wire and soft iron core

and current passing through the bar magnet

6.10P draw magnetic field patterns for a straight wire, a

flat circular coil and a solenoid when each is carrying a
current

6.11P know that there is a force on a charged particle

when it moves in a magnetic field as long as its motion
is not parallel to the field

A charged particle has a magnetic field around it. When

a charged particle moves through another magnetic
field, it experiences a force. This is because of the
overlapping of the two magnetic fields. However, if the
charged particle is moved parallel to that field, no force
will be exerted. As an electric current is a flow of
electrons, we can see this effect when a wire carrying
the current is put into a magnetic field too.
6.12 understand why a force is exerted on a
current-carrying wire in a magnetic field and how this
effect is applied in simple d.c. electric motors and
loudspeakers

●​ When a current flows through a wire in a magnetic

field, a force is exerted on the wire. This is called
the motor effect.​

●​ This effect is applied in devices like:​

○​ DC motors: The force causes the wire (or coil)

to rotate, which drives the motor.​

○​ Loudspeakers: The wire moves back and

forth, creating vibrations that produce
sound.

6.13 use the left-hand rule to predict the direction of

the resulting force when a wire carries a current
perpendicular to a magnetic field

The Left-Hand Rule helps predict the direction of the

force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
field.

●​ Thumb = Direction of current​

●​ First finger = Direction of magnetic field (N → S)​

●​ Second finger = Direction of force (motion of the

conductor)

6.14 describe how the force on a current-carrying

conductor in a magnetic field changes with the
magnitude and direction of the field and current

●​ Force increases with:​

 ○​ The strength of the magnetic field (stronger
field = greater force).​

○​ The amount of current (more current =

greater force).​

○​ The length of the conductor within the field

(longer conductor = greater force).​

●​ The force depends on the direction of the current

and the magnetic field.​

○​ If the current and magnetic field are parallel,

the force is zero.​

○​ If they are perpendicular, the force is

maximum.​

6.15 know that a voltage is induced in a conductor or a

coil when it moves through a magnetic field or when a
magnetic field changes through it and describe the
factors that affect the size of the induced voltage

A voltage is induced in a conductor (or coil) when it

moves through a magnetic field or when the magnetic
field changes around it.​

The size of the induced voltage depends on:

1.​ The speed at which the conductor moves (faster =

higher voltage).​

2.​ The strength of the magnetic field.​

3.​ The length of the conductor in the field.​

4.​ The angle at which the conductor cuts the

magnetic field lines.
6.16 describe the generation of electricity by the
rotation of a magnet within a coil of wire and of a coil
of wire within a magnetic field, and describe the factors
that affect the size of the induced voltage

●​ Electricity generation can be done by rotating a

magnet within a coil of wire or by rotating a coil of
wire within a magnetic field.​

●​ Factors affecting the size of induced voltage:​

1.​ Speed of rotation (faster = more voltage).​

2.​ Number of turns in the coil (more turns =

higher voltage).​

3.​ Strength of the magnetic field.​

4.​ Area of the coil (larger area = higher voltage).

6.17P describe the structure of a transformer and

understand that a transformer changes the size of an
alternating voltage by having different numbers of
turns on the input and output sides

A transformer consists of:

●​ Primary coil: Where the input voltage is applied.

●​ Secondary coil: Where the output voltage is
produced.​

●​ Iron core: Transfers the magnetic flux between the

coils.

**Transformers work with alternating current (AC)

6.18P explain the use of step-up and step-down

transformers in the large-scale generation and
transmission of electrical energy

Step-up transformer: Increases the voltage (more turns

on the secondary coil than on the primary coil).
Step-down transformer: Decreases the voltage (fewer
turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil).​

In power generation and transmission:

●​ Step-up transformers increase voltage to reduce

energy loss over long distances.​

●​ Step-down transformers decrease voltage for safe

use in homes and industries.

6.19P know and use the relationship between input

(primary) and output (secondary) voltages and the
turns ratio for a transformer: input (primary) voltage
primary turns output (secondary) voltage secondary
turns =

The relationship between the input (primary) voltage

and the output (secondary) voltage is directly related to
the ratio of the number of turns on the coils.

Where,

Vp = input voltage

Vs = output voltage

Np = number of turns on the primary coil

Ns = number of turns on the secondary coil

UNIT 7 : RADIOACTIVITY
7.1 use the following units: becquerel (Bq),
centimetre (cm), hour (h), minute (min) and second
(s) (b) Radioactivity
 ●​ Becquerel (Bq) – measures radioactivity (1 Bq = 1
decay per second).
●​ Centimetre (cm) – used for measuring distance.
●​ Hour (h), Minute (min), Second (s) – used for
measuring time.

7.2 describe the structure of an atom in terms of

protons, neutrons and electrons and use symbols
such as 14 6 C to describe particular nuclei

●​ Protons – positive charge, found in the nucleus.​

●​ Neutrons – no charge (neutral), also in the nucleus.​

●​ Electrons – negative charge, orbit the nucleus.

7.3 know the terms atomic (proton) number, mass

(nucleon) number and isotope

Example:

●​ 14 = Mass number (protons + neutrons)​

●​ 6 = Atomic (proton) number​

●​ C = Chemical symbol (Carbon)​

From this we know:

●​ Protons = 6​

●​ Neutrons = 14 – 6 = 8​

●​ Electrons = 6 (in a neutral atom)

7.3 know the terms atomic (proton) number, mass
(nucleon) number and isotope

●​ Atomic (Proton) Number = number of protons

(defines the element).​

●​ Mass (Nucleon) Number = protons + neutrons.​

●​ Isotopes = atoms of the same element (same

protons) but different neutrons.

7.4 know that alpha (α) particles, beta (β− ) particles,

and gamma (γ) rays are ionising radiations emitted
from unstable nuclei in a random process

●​ Radioactive substances give off radiation

because their nuclei are unstable.​

●​ These emissions are random – we can’t predict

exactly when an atom will decay.​

●​ The types of radiation are:​

○​ Alpha particles (α)​

○​ Beta particles (β⁻)​

○​ Gamma rays (γ)

7.5 describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta

(β− ) particles and gamma (γ) rays, and recall that
they may be distinguished in terms of penetrating
power and ability to ionise

What’s it? Penetration Ionising

Power ability
Alpha A helium Low High
nucleus
Beta A high Medium Meidum
energy
electron
Gamma Electromag Very high Low
netic wave

7.6 practical: investigate the penetration powers of

different types of radiation using either radioactive
sources or simulations

●​ Alpha blocked by paper or a few cm of air.​

●​ Beta: passes through paper, blocked by thin

aluminium.​

●​ Gamma: needs thick lead or concrete to be

reduced.

7.7 describe the effects on the atomic and mass

numbers of a nucleus of the emission of each of
the four main types of radiation (alpha, beta,
gamma and neutron radiation)
Alpha - Atomic number decreases by 2 while mass
number decreases by 4

Beta - Atomic number increases by one since a nucleus

loses a neutron while gains a proton and the mass
number remains constant

Gamma - no change to atomic or mass number

Neutron - A proton changes to a neutron, so atomic no

decreases by 1 while mass no remains constant

7.8 understand how to balance nuclear equations

in terms of mass and charge
 ●​ Carbon-14 decays by beta emission.​

●​ Atomic number increases by 1 (6 → 7), mass

number stays 14.

7.9 know that photographic film or a Geiger−Müller

detector can detect ionising radiations

Radiation can be detected using:

●​ Photographic film – darkens when exposed to

radiation (used in film badges for safety).​

●​ Geiger–Müller detector (GM tube) – makes a

clicking sound or gives a digital count when
radiation is detected.

7.10 explain the sources of background (ionising)

radiation from Earth and space

Even without radioactive sources, we are exposed to

background radiation every day.

●​ Rocks and soil (especially granite) – emit radon

gas.​

●​ Buildings and food (e.g. bananas contain

potassium-40).​

●​ Cosmic rays from the Sun and distant stars.

●​ Medical scans (X-rays, CT scans), nuclear power,
past nuclear tests.

7.11 know that the activity of a radioactive source

decreases over a period of time and is measured in
becquerels

●​ Activity = how many nuclei decay per second.​

 ●​ Measured in becquerels (Bq)​
→ 1 Bq = 1 decay per second.​
Over time, activity decreases as atoms decay —
this is an exponential process.

7.12 know the definition of the term 'half-life' and

understand that it is different for different
radioactive isotopes
Half life - Time taken for radioactivity to halve

●​ It’s different for different radioactive isotopes.​

●​ Some have short half-lives (seconds), others have

long ones (thousands of years).

If a substance has a half-life of 2 hours, and its activity

starts at 1000 Bq:

●​ After 2 hours → 500 Bq​

●​ After 4 hours → 250 Bq​

●​ After 6 hours → 125 Bq

7.13 use the concept of the half-life to carry out

simple calculations on activity, including graphical
methods

●​ Start activity = 800 Bq​

●​ Half-life = 1 hour​

●​ Time passed = 3 hours

Number of half lives = 3

—> 800 —> 400 —> 200 —> 100( final activity )

7.14 describe uses of radioactivity in industry and

medicine
 1.​ Thickness Control​

○​ Beta radiation is used to check the thickness

of materials like paper or metal sheets.​

○​ If too much radiation passes through, the

material is too thin — machines adjust it.​

2.​ Leak Detection (Tracers)​

○​ Gamma-emitting tracers are placed in pipes

to detect leaks.​

○​ If radiation escapes where it shouldn't, there's

a leak!​

3.​ Smoke Alarms​

○​ Use alpha radiation from a radioactive

source (like Americium-241).​

○​ When smoke enters, it disrupts the alpha

particles, triggering the alarm.​

🩺 Medicine:
1.​ Medical Tracers​

○​ Radioactive isotopes (e.g., technetium-99) are

injected or swallowed.​

○​ They emit gamma radiation, which is

detected by a scanner to show internal
organs.​

2.​ Cancer Treatment (Radiotherapy)​

 ○​ Gamma rays or beta particles are aimed at
cancer cells to destroy them.​

○​ Healthy tissue is carefully protected.​

3.​ Sterilising Equipment​

○​ Gamma radiation kills bacteria on medical

tools, making them sterile.

7.15 describe the difference between contamination

and irradiation

●​ Contamination is when a non-radioactive object

comes into contact with a radioactive material
●​ Irradiation is when the radiation is present

7.16 describe the dangers of ionising radiations,

including: • that radiation can cause mutations in living
organisms • that radiation can damage cells and tissue
• the problems arising from the disposal of radioactive
waste and how the associated risks can be reduced

7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission,

fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of
energy

●​ Nuclear reactions release a lot of energy

compared to chemical reactions.​

●​ Fission (splitting a nucleus) and fusion (joining

nuclei) are two main nuclear reactions that
produce large amounts of energy.​

●​ Radioactive decay (the breakdown of unstable

nuclei) also releases energy.​

7.18 understand how a nucleus of U-235 can be split (the

process of fission) by collision with a neutron and that
this process releases energy as kinetic energy of the
fission products

In nuclear fission, a Uranium-235 (U-235) nucleus

absorbs a neutron and becomes unstable.​

This causes the nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei

(daughter nuclei).​

The process releases energy, which is in the form of

kinetic energy of the fission products (the smaller
nuclei) and additional neutrons.

7.19 In nuclear fission, a Uranium-235 (U-235) nucleus

absorbs a neutron and becomes unstable.

When U-235 splits during fission, it produces:

1.​ Two radioactive daughter nuclei (which are often

unstable and also undergo further decay).​

2.​ A small number of neutrons (which can cause

further fission reactions).

7.20 describe how a chain reaction can be set up if the

neutrons produced by one fission strike other U-235
nuclei

A chain reaction occurs when the neutrons produced

from one fission reaction cause more U-235 nuclei to
undergo fission.​

These new fission reactions release even more neutrons,

continuing the process.

7.21 describe the role played by the control rods and

moderator in the fission process

Control rods: Made of materials like boron or cadmium,

they absorb neutrons, reducing the number of
neutrons available to continue the chain reaction. This
controls the rate of the reaction.​

Moderator: A material (like water or graphite) used to

slow down the fast neutrons produced during fission,
making them more likely to cause further fission when
they collide with other U-235 nuclei.

7.22 understand the role of shielding around a nuclear

reactor

Shielding around nuclear reactors (like thick concrete

walls or lead) is used to protect people from radiation
emitted during fission reactions.​

It absorbs harmful gamma rays and other radiation.

7.23 explain the difference between nuclear fusion and

nuclear fission

Nuclear Fission: The process of splitting a large nucleus

(like U-235) into smaller nuclei, releasing a large amount
of energy.​

Nuclear Fusion: The process of joining smaller nuclei

(like hydrogen) to form a larger nucleus, releasing even
more energy than fission.

7.24 describe nuclear fusion as the creation of larger

nuclei resulting in a loss of mass from smaller nuclei,
accompanied by a release of energy

●​ Fusion happens when small nuclei (e.g., hydrogen

atoms) fuse together to form a larger nucleus (e.g.,
helium).​

●​ Energy is released because the mass of the

resulting nucleus is less than the combined mass
of the smaller nuclei — this mass difference is
released as energy (according to E=mc²).​
7.25 know that fusion is the energy source for stars

In stars, hydrogen nuclei (protons) fuse to form helium

nuclei through fusion reactions.​

This process releases a huge amount of energy, which

powers stars, including our Sun.

7.26 explain why nuclear fusion does not happen at low

temperatures and pressures, due to electrostatic
repulsion of protons

For fusion to occur, the nuclei must collide with enough

energy to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between
the positively charged protons.​

At low temperatures and pressures, the particles don’t

have enough energy to overcome this repulsion.​

In stars, extremely high temperatures (millions of

degrees) and pressures are required for fusion to
happen.

UNIT 8 : ASTROPHYSICS
8.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m),
metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton
(N), second (s), newton/kilogram (N/kg) (b)

●​ Kilogram (kg), Metre (m),

●​ Metre/second (m/s),
●​ Metre/second squared (ms^2)
●​ Newton (N) Second (s),
●​ Newton/Kilogram (N/kg)
8.2 know that:

●​ the universe is a large collection of billions of

galaxies
●​ a galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars
●​ our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy

8.3 understand why gravitational field strength, g,

varies and know that it is different on other planets
and the Moon from that on the Earth
Gravity is a force that pulls all objects close to the
surface of the planet towards the planet. The force of
gravity depends on the inner core of the planet and
since this varies from planet to planet, the gravity at
each planet varies. Compared to Earth, the Moon has a
weaker gravity whereas Jupiter has a much larger
gravity.

8.4 explain that gravitational force:

●​ causes moons to orbit planets

●​ causes the planets to orbit the Sun
●​ causes artificial satellites to orbit the Earth •
●​ causes comets to orbit the Sun

8.5 describe the differences in the orbits of comets,

moons and planets

1)​ Orbit of comet is elliptical while orbit of moons

and planets is circular
2)​ Planets and moon move at a constant speed
while comets have a variable speed
 Planets and moons Comets

8.6 use the relationship between orbital speed,

orbital radius and time period:

Orbital speed = 2 * pi * orbital radius / time period

=> v = 2*pi*r / T

8.7 understand how stars can be classified

according to their colour

8.8 know that a star’s colour is related to its surface

temperature

—> A red star is the coolest. When star becomes a

red giant, it becomes redder as it expands and
cools
—-> A blue star is the hottest. When star becomes a
white dwarf, it becomes whiter as it contracts and
heats up.

8.9 describe the evolution of stars of similar mass

to the Sun through the following stages: • nebula •
star (main sequence) • red giant • white dwarf

●​ A nebula or a gas cloud collapses under

gravity forming a protostar. (the force og
gravity within a nebula pulls the particles
closer together untila hot ball of gas forms
called - protostar.. This results in more
frequent successful collisions between the
particles which causes the temperature to
rise.)
●​ The protostar then becomes a main sequence
star as nuclear fusion begins.

●​ During main sequence, the star is in

equilibrium and is called stable. When
hydrogen round out, the main sequence star
then expands, becomes cooler and forms a
red giant.

●​ The red giant eventually sheds its outer layer

and becomes a white dwarf. The white dwarf
cools and fades becoming a black dwarf.

8.10 describe the evolution of stars with a mass

larger than the Sun

●​ A nebula or a gas cloud collapses under

gravity forming a protostar. (the force og
gravity within a nebula pulls the particles
closer together untila hot ball of gas forms
called - protostar.. This results in more
 frequent successful collisions between the
particles which causes the temperature to
rise.)
●​ The protostar then becomes a main sequence
star as nuclear fusion begins, which later
expands into a red super giant.
●​ Eventually the red supergiant undergoes a
supernova explosion.
●​ Depending on it’s mass, the remnants of the
supernova become either a neutron star or a
black hole.

8.11P understand how the brightness of a star at a

standard distance can be represented using
absolute magnitude

●​ Brightness of a Star depends on:​

○​ How much light it emits (its luminosity).​

○​ How far it is from Earth.​

●​ To compare stars fairly, astronomers use

absolute magnitude, which is:

​
“ A measure of the brightness/ luminosity of
an object it was placed 32,6 light years away “ ​

●​ REMEMBER !!​

○​ Apparent magnitude: how bright a star

looks from Earth.​

○​ Absolute magnitude: how bright a star

actually is if it were 10 parsecs away.​
8.12P draw the main components of the
Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (HR diagram)

Key Regions on the HR Diagram:

●​ Main Sequence: Diagonal band where stars like

the Sun live most of their lives.​

●​ Giants & Supergiants: Bright, large stars – found

above the main sequence.​

●​ White Dwarfs: Small, hot but dim stars – bottom

left.

The Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) Diagram shows the

relationship between:

●​ A star’s luminosity (or absolute magnitude)​

●​ Its surface temperature (or spectral type)

8.13P describe the past evolution of the universe

and the main arguments in favour of the Big Bang
theory
In the past, universe was concentrated as single
point or in other words, it began as a hot/dense
point. Universe has expanded since the Big Bang
and has cooled since the Big Bang.

LINES OF EVIDENCES IN FAVOUR OF B.B -

I) The cosmic microwave background radiation

(CMBR) appears to be the same in all directions,
providing a uniform remnant of the early universe

II) Initially the radiation was high energy gamma

rays, but as universe expanded, it’s wavelength
increased.

III) Also, more distant galaxies exhibit greater red

shifts indicating that they are moving away faster.
This suggests that the galaxies are receding from
each consistent with an expanding universe.

8.14P describe evidence that supports the Big Bang

theory (red-shift and cosmic microwave
background - CMB - radiation)

Cosmic microwave background radiation appears

to be the same in all directions which implies that
all part of the universe were in contact long ago.
The further the galaxy is from Earth, the greater the
red shift and the faster the galaxy is moving away.

8.15P describe that if a wave source is moving

relative to an observer, there will be a change in the
observed frequency and wavelength

When a wave source moves relative to an observer,

the observed frequency and wavelength change.
This is known as the Doppler Effect.For example -

If a car with a siren is moves towards us, the pitch

(frequency) seems higher.​
 ●​ As it moves away, the pitch sounds lower.

FOR THE UNIVERSE -

●​ If a galaxy is moving away from us:​

○​ Wavefronts are closer together and

bunched up(wavelength increases).​

○​ This is called a red shift (toward the red

end of the spectrum).​

●​ If a galaxy is moving toward us:​

○​ Light waves get compressed (wavelength

decreases).​

○​ This is called a blue shift.

8.16P use the equation relating to change in

wavelength, reference wavelength, velocity of a
galaxy and the speed of light: speed of light
velocity of a galaxy reference wavelength change in
wavelength

Change in wavelength/ reference wavelength =

velocity of a galaxy/ speed of light

=> delta lambda/ lambda = v/c

**Speed of light (≈ 3.0 × 10⁸ m/s)

8.17P describe the red-shift in light received from

galaxies at different distances away from the Earth

●​ When we observe light from galaxies far away,

we notice it is red-shifted. WHICH means,
 That the wavelength of the light has increased,
shifting toward the red end of the spectrum.​

**The greater the distance to the galaxy, the

greater the red-shift, and the faster that
galaxy is moving away​

📏 So in simple terms:
●​ Nearby galaxy → small red-shift​

●​ Distant galaxy → large red-shift

8.18P explain why the red-shift of galaxies provides

evidence for the expansion of the universe

When we look at light from distant galaxies, we see

that the light is red-shifted — meaning its
wavelengths are stretched.

This tells us that:

●​ The galaxies are moving away from us.​

●​ The further away a galaxy is, the more

red-shifted its light is — so it's moving away
faster.​

IN SHORT - Red-shift shows galaxies are moving

away, and the further they are, the faster they
recede — strong evidence that the universe is
expanding, just like the Big Bang theory predicts.