DNA AND RNA
What is DNA?
Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a biological macromolecule that carries
hereditary information in many organisms. DNA is necessary for the
production of proteins, the regulation, metabolism, and reproduction of the
cell. Large compressed DNA molecules with associated proteins, called
chromatin, are mostly present inside the nucleus. Some cytoplasmic organelles
like the mitochondria also contain DNA molecules.
DNA is usually a double-stranded polymer of nucleotides, although single-
stranded DNA is also known. Nucleotides in DNA are molecules made of
deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate and a nitrogenous base. The nitrogenous
bases in DNA are of four types – adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine. The
phosphate and the deoxyribose sugars form a backbone-like structure, with
the nitrogenous bases extending out like rungs of a ladder. Each sugar
molecule is linked through its third and fifth carbon atoms to one phosphate
molecule each.
Function of DNA:
WATSON AND CRICK MODEL
1.The DNA molecule consists of two polynucleotide chains wound around each
other in a right-handed double helix; that is, viewed on end (from either end),
the two strands wind around each other in a clockwise (right-handed) fashion.
2. The two chains are antiparallel (show opposite polarity); that is, the two
strands are oriented in opposite directions, with one strand oriented in the
5’to 3’way and the other strand oriented to 3’ to 5’. More simply if the 5’ end
is the “head” of the chain and the 3’ end is the “tail,” antiparallel means that
the head of one chain is against the tail of the other chain, and vice versa.
3. The sugar–phosphate backbones are on the outsides of the double helix,
with the bases oriented toward the central axis. The bases of both chains are
flat structures oriented perpendicularly to the long axis of the DNA so that they
are stacked like pennies on top of one another, following the twist of the helix.
4. The bases in each of the two polynucleotide chains are bonded together by
hydrogen bonds, which are relatively weak chemical bonds. The specific
pairings observed are A bonded with T (two hydrogen bond) and G bonded
with C (three hydrogen bonds). The hydrogen bonds make it relatively easy to
separate the two strands of the DNA—for example, by heating. The A–T and
G–C base pairs are the only ones that can fit the physical dimensions of the
helical model, and their arrangement is in accord with Chargaff’s rules. The
specific A–T and G–C pairs are called complementary base pairs, so the
nucleotide sequence in one strand dictates the nucleotide sequence of the
other. For instance, if one chain has the sequence 5’-TATTCCGA-3’, then the
opposite, antiparallel chain must bear the sequence 3’-ATAAGGCT-5’.
5. The base pairs are 0.34 nm apart in the DNA helix. A complete (360°) turn of
the helix takes 3.4 nm; therefore, there are 10 base pairs (bp) per turn. The
external diameter of the helix is 2 nm.
6. Because of the way the bases bond with each other, the two sugar–
phosphate backbones of the double helix are not equally spaced from one
another along the helical axis. This unequal spacing results in grooves of
unequal size between the backbones; one groove is called the major (wider)
groove, the other the minor (narrower) groove. The edges of the base pairs are
exposed in the grooves, and both grooves are large enough to allow particular
protein molecules to make contact with the bases.
CHARGUFF’S RULE:
