NATURAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION & EXTENSION

COURSE: ED 111 (COMMUNICATION SKILLS)

Prepared & Revised by: Mr. C. Sondo (Cert. Agric., Cert. Hort., C.A.E., D.A.E,
B.A.E, MSc Agric. Ext & Rural Dev).
@ 2018

2
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Acknowledgement
…………………………………………………………………………………………. ii

Introduction ………………………………………………………… iii

………………………......

Module Aim ………………………………………………………… iv

……………………….
Module learning iv
outcomes …………………………………………………………
…………………………

About this module ………………………………………………………… iv

……………………….

Assessment ………………………………………………………… v
……………………….

Learning tips ………………………………………………………… v

……………………….

Studying at a distance ………………………………………………………… vi

……………………….

If you need help ………………………………………………………… vi

……………………….

UNIT 1: ORIENTATION TO COLLEGE STUDIES

………………………………………………………………1
INTRODUCTION
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………….1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
….1
1.1. WHAT IS STUDYING?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………2
1.2. CHALLENGES OF COLLEGE STUDYING
…………………………………………………………………………………………1
1.2.1 ACADEMIC CHALLENGES
…………………………………………………………………………………………………2
1.2.2 FINANCIAL
CHALLENGES…………………………………………………………………………………………
……..2
i
 1.2.3 SOCIAL FACTORS
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3
SUMMARY
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….5
ACTIVITY
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….6
READINGS
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..7
2...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

…………………………………………………………5
INTRODUCTION
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………5
LEARNING OUTCOMES
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5
2.1 DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNICATION AND EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
………………………………………6
2.2 COMMUNICATION PROCESS
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………6
2.3 COMMUNICATION MODELS
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5
2.3.1 LINEAR COMMUNICATION MODEL……………
………………………………………………………………………..5
2.3.2 INTERACTIVE COMMUNICATION
MODEL............................................................................6
2.4 COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION
………………................................................................................6
2.5 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
………………………………………………………………………………..7
2.6 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF MEDIUM OF COMMUNICATION

…………………………….7
SUMMARY
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….8
ACTIVITY
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….8
READINGS
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………9

UNIT 3: VERBAL COMMUNICATION

…………………………………………………………………………….10

ii
 INTRODUCTION
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1
3.1 DEFINITION OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION
………………………………………………………………………………..10
3.2 EFFECTIVE LISTENING SKILLS
……………………………………………………………………………………………………11
3.3 NOTE TAKING SKILLS.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
12
3.4 READING SKILLS
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……..12
3.5 PRESENTATION
SKILLS………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….13
3.6 CONDUCTING EFFECTIVE MEETINGS
…………………………………………………………………………………………14
3.7 ATTENDING INTERVIEWS
……………………………………………………..........................................16
SUMMARY
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….8
ACTIVITY
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….8
READINGS
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………9

UNIT 4: NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION (NVC)

…………………………………………………………16
INTRODUCTION
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………23
LEARNING OUTCOMES
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1
4.1 DEFINITION OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
………………………………...............................17
4.2 FORMS OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION .............................................................17
4.2.1 PARALANGUAGE
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………17
4.2.2 KINESIC
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………18

iii
 4.2.3 PROXEMICS
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………18
4.2.4 IMAGE
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………19
SUMMARY
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….8
ACTIVITY
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….8
READINGS
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………9

UNIT 5: WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

………………………………………………………………………….19
INTRODUCTION
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1
5.1 LETTERS
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………..20
5.2 CURRICULUM VITAE .......................................................................................21
5.3 MEMORANDA
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………….22
5.4 REPORTS AND REPORTING
………………………………………………………………...............................23

SUMMARY
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….24
ACTIVITY
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………24
READINGS
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….25

UNIT 6: ACADEMIC WRITING SKILLS............................................ ..26

INTRODUCTION
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………1
6.1 ESSAYS AND ASSIGNMENTS
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….27
iv
6.2 ACADEMIC WRITING………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………...30
6.2.1 CITATION
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………….32
6.2.2 REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………….
………………………………………………….27
6.2.3 REFERENCING STYLES
………………………………………………………………………………………………..30
6.2.3.1 APA/HARVARD
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….33
6.2.4 HOW TO WRITE REFERENCES
……………………………………………………………………..32
6.2.4.1 PERIODICALS
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..31
6.2.4.2 TEXTBOOKS
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………….32
6.2.4.3 ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS
…………………………………………………………………………………………33
6.2.4.4 COURSE MATERIALS
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
35
SUMMARY
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….34
ACTIVITY
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………34
READINGS
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….35

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This module has grown directly out of vast field in the Ministry of Agriculture
(Extension Section) and academic experiences in teaching Communication
skills to students in various Colleges and Universities.

The writer wishes to thank the following for their contributions: Mr N. Aongola and
Mr J. Chimwemwe for their constructive criticisms towards the success of this
module. Furthermore, I wish to acknowledge inputs from various authors cited. The
people who contributed to this module derserve my appreciation.

vi
INTRODUCTION

Communication skills are important to everyone. Today’s engineers, crop

scientists, animal scientists etc. may not only have to be masters in their
professional or technical knowledge and skills but also, must have various
soft skills competencies to be suitable for the job market. Commnication
skills are about how we give and receive information and convey our ideas
and opinions with those around us.

For example, as jobs are being advertised, one of the qualifications is that
the job seeker must possess interpersonal and good communication skills. To
respond to that, effect, this course provides you with useful knowledge and
skills on how to effectivelly communicate during your academic and
proffessional career.

Therefore, welcome to ED 111 - Communication Skills. I can assure you will

enjoy studying this course. Ed 111- Communication Skills is a two-credit unit
course meant to be taken in the first semester of First Year.

MODULE AIM

As stated in the introduction, the main aim of this course is to equip you with
communication skills suitable for both academic and professional career
purposes.

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

To achieve the aim set out above, this course has overall objectives. In
addition, each unit also has specific outcomes. The unit learning outcomes
are always included at the beginning of every unit. I advise you to read them
before you start working through each unit. You may want to refer to each
unit during your study to check your progress.
vii
Set out below are the wider learning outcomes for the course as a whole. By
meeting the these learning outcomes, you can count yourself as having met
the aim of the course.

By the end of the module, you should be able to:

 Identify challenges of college studying, and how to overcome them;

 Define communication and effective communication;
 Identify the components of effective communication process;
 Explain barriers to effective communication;
 State the types of communication;
 Explain listening and note taking skills during lectures;
 Demonstrate effective presentation and delivery skills;
 Write assignments of essay type; and
 Cite and quote literature in assignments and academic research
reports/projects.

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

To complete this course, you are required to read the module units and read
sets of books and other relevant materials that you may lay your hands on.
You will also need to undertake practical exercises and activities for which
you need to work as a team or individually. Therefore, before I get into the
topic, let me introduce the course contents to you.

viii
 MODULEOVERVIEW
OVERVIEW
MODULE

Themodule
modulecovers
coversthe
thefollowing:
following:
The
Orientationto
tostudying
studyingatatcollege
collegelevel;
level;
Orientation
Introductionto
tocommunication;
communication;
Introduction
Verbalcommunication;
communication;
Verbal
Non-verbalcommunication;
communication;
Non-verbal
Writtencommunication;
communication;and
and
Written
Academicwriting;
writing;
Academic

ASSESSMENT

This module is divided into six units. Each unit addresses at least one of the
learning outcomes described above that will help you to effectively study the
materal. At the same time, you will be asked to complete various tasks so
that you can demonstrate your competence in achieving the various learning
outcomes.

ASSESSMENT METHODS

The course will be assessed in two aspects. These are: 1. Continuous

Assessments (CAs) and 2. End of semester examination.

CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENTS (CAS)

ix
The continuous assessments component of the overall assessment accounts
for 30% of the total score. Therefore, you will be given two (2) continuous
tests during the semester residential school.

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The examination concludes the assessment for the course. To

prepare for this examination, read all the units in this module.
Revision of all the exercises and assignments before the examination
will also be of help to you. The revision should start after you have finished
studying the last unit. This examination constitutes 70% of the final mark.

Learning tips

Duration: You will most likely take about 48 hours to work through this
module. This includes the time you will spend on the activities
and self-help questions.

Activities: This module has some activites under the different units. These
activities are meant to help you revise the various aspects of the
course that you will have covered. This is a way in which you will
prepare yourself for the written examination. In addition, the
activities offer you an opportunity to experience, first hand
aspects of Agricultural Extension. Hence you are encouraged to
perform these activities.

Icons: This module uses a number of icons. Icons are pictures or

symbols that serve as indicators or guides that tell you what you
should do. Below are the icons you will find in the module:

x
 Activity
(Complete the activity) Assignment
(Scores add to your CA. Refer to
page iv above)

Self-help
Note It
(Answer the question)
(Indicates important points)

(Indicates remember)

Studying at a distance

In distance learning, your course material replaces either the lecturer or

instructor. Therefore, this course material has been designed in such a way
that you can study on your own with little or no assistance at all. This allows
you to work and study at your own pace and place that best suits you. You
are also provided exercises and activities to do at appropriate points, just as
a lecturer might give you an in–class exercise or activity.

If you need help

In case you need help, it will be necessary for you to contact lecturers by
phone or internet for various consultations. In addition, you will be advised
during your residential school regarding contacting your lecturers by e-mail
or phone. If you need the help of a course lecturer, consultation hours must
be pre-arranged. I hope you will find this learning experience exciting and
beneficial.

xi
GOOD LUCK

xii
 UNIT
U ORIENTATION
1: O
NIT 1: RIENTATION TO
TO
COLLEGE
C OLLEGE
STUDIES
S TUDIES

Introduction

When you decide to embark upon a home learning programme, it can be an

exciting time! All of the potential of new knowledge headed in your direction
from the comfort of your arm chair and yet as much as I would encourage
the personal and professional development this will bring, there are
definitely some factors that you should consider before jumping in. This unit
explores these aspects.

Learningoutcomes
Learning outcomes
Uponcompletion
completionofofthis
thisunit,
unit,you
youshould
shouldbe
beable
ableto:
to:
Upon
Definestudying;
studying;
Define
Identifychallenges
challengesfaced
facedby
bymany
manystudents
studentsstudying
studyingat
ataacollege;
college;
Identify
and
and
Discussmethods
methodsofofaddressing
addressingthe
theaforementioned
aforementionedchallenges.
challenges.
Discuss

1.1 Challenges of studying at a college

Open and Distance Learning (ODL) has grown into an important global
strategy in resolving problems of access to tertiary education. Major benefits

1
of ODL are related to its flexibility, accessibility, affordability and life based
education opportunities. It enables an expansion of tertiary enrolments at
less cost per student than under the conventional residential campus
system. Greater flexibility enables ODL courses to adapt to specific student
needs or work requirements, thereby enabling greater relevance.

Despite the aforementioned advantages, ODL mode of learning has its own
unique challenges. Some of these challenges are identified, described and
suggestions are provided for managing them.

1.1.1 Academic challenges

All through your life from primary to secondary school, there were scheduled
preparation days commonly known as ‘prep’ that were structured on a
portion of time and remained the same all through the school year. Then
suddenly, you are thrust into college life that is more flexible and
unpredictable. At College, you are expected to be an independent learner. It
is up to you to find out what you need to know and to organise your time for
classes, for reading outside of classes and for submitting assignments on
time. This may prove to be very challenging to you as a first year student
because of other obligations such as attending church programs, spouses,
friends, clubs, sports and part or full time jobs. However, how you handle
these obligations depends on your time management skills and your self-
discipline.

Here are major time management tips you can apply in order to be a
successful student:

a) Prepare a study timetable

You should always remember that the most important thing in college life is
to plan your study time. Many students make serious academic mistakes by
studying during residential school citing busy schedules at work places or

2
home chores. Therefore, you are advised to prioritize your time and put off
other activities to allow for adequate study time prior to residential school.
Leave enough time for each of your courses and more time for courses you
think are difficult, but never sacrifice other courses too.

What is to Study?

As you prepare a study time table, you need first to understand what
studying. Studying is a process in which students or any other scholar
remembers and recalls information (Theodore, 1993). Similarly, Mwansa and
Moonga (2002) defined studying as “an intensive reading of a text with a
view to retain or comprehend its content.” The retention of the material is
reflected through responses you give when you are tested or examined.

b) Use your notes to study

As you prepare for tests, examinations and assignments, remember that you
should avoid reading textbooks or any other detailed documents. This is not
the best time to do so. The best time to use such documents is prior to tests
and examinations. If you have taken detailed notes during lectures or
practical sessions, studies show that you have done more than half of your
studying for any test/examination. As you study using your notes, there is
need then to highlight some important points.

c) Memory and Learning

At times you may think that because you have understood what you heard or
read then you have learnt it. However, neglecting to take steps to remember
is a common academic mistake you can ever make. Your first efforts in
studying any course are always directed toward moving information from

3
your Sensory Memory through to Long-Term Memory (LTM). This information
can then be recalled when you need it.

The term ‘memory’ here is used in a much broader sense than when you
were told at either a primary or secondary school that you have to memorize
a poem, speech, Ohm’s law, series of dates in a history course etc. The kind
of memorization we are looking at here involves the whole range of activities
that expand your mind and abilities in all sorts of dimensions, that is, the
storing of the information in the long-term memory and its retrieval. In sum,
it is the ability to recall and make connections between ideas, events or
things you know or applying the learnt information in different contexts.

d) Form Study Groups

At college level, never be cheated to study alone no matter how intellectual

you are. Working in pairs or groups helps a lot and can only be effective if
certain guidelines are observed such as:

 You should only work with students who take the same serious
attitude toward their studies as you do. However, a study group
should not be for social gathering but purely academic;

 Decide on how you are going to work together;

 Make sure that everyone takes responsibilities in discussions, data
collection, etc.;
 Stick to your agreement unless everyone agrees to make some
changes; and
 Group with students who attend lectures, labs and any other
learning instruction.

Group work helps to compare and contrast notes, hence, clarify difficulty
points encountered in the lecture or practical sessions. Posing questions for

4
each other about the material can help increase and broaden your
understanding.

1.1.2 Financial Challenges

Unless you are extremely wealthy and can afford to meet your tuition fees
and other academic requirements, then you will be faced with very little
financial challenges. However, for majority students, college life though
offered by distance, is extremely expensive. Tuition costs are rising at an
alarming high rates. Added to the cost of high college fees are house rentals,
meals, textbooks and transportation etc. To adapt to these expenses, some
look for accommodation near the campus to cut on costs. Others risk their
lives to do all sorts of things so as to pull through academic issues. Others
apply for student loans or sacrifice their meagre salaries to pay tuition fees.

In addition to all these expenses, for ladies they still need to look good, go
out with friends, and furnish their rooms. The question is, where will the
money come from? All these are financial huddles if not handled properly
can affect your study life.

But what you need to know is that education is expensive and at the same
time an investment. Therefore, as a student you need to sacrifice all what
you have. At the same time, live within your means and be industrious so as
to finance your studies. Today you may look as if you are suffering, but
remember tomorrow may not be the same.

1.1.3 Social challenges

a) Increased Personal Responsibility

In college, a student is treated as an adult thus, personal responsibility

increases. This means that you are responsible for the actions and decisions

5
that you make. When you were young, it was easier to put the blame of your
failures on your parents and teachers. In college, on the other hand, all your
successes and failures are accredited to you. Although college rules and
regulations say that you have to register and attend lectures or any other
learning activities, your decision entirely relies in you whether to register for
the courses for the semester, attend class on time, submit your research
papers on time, sleep early, etc. This if not handled properly, can deter your
college studies.

b) Social adjustments

Upon entry into a college, as a first year student, you may be confronted
with new personal and interpersonal challenges that include the need to
establish new relationships, and develop study skills. Relationship has two
parts: the married student and the single student. The problem for married
students is that they are isolated from their loved ones and if taken to heart,
may cause home-sickness at all times. It is worse with female students.
Many female students miss their families and feel lonely. They are always
pre-occupied with thoughts of how their families are coping up in their
absence.

Making new friends with your classmates is important because you will need
help from fellow classmates in your academics. However, friends also come
with the peer pressure of engaging in drugs, alcohol and even sexual
gratifications.

Conclusion

6
While it is not as much fun as planning a party or late-night pizza run,
successful college students with the highest Grade Point Averages (GPA’s)
regularly scheduled their study time. This means that, rather than delaying
studying until they felt like they were behind, great students used regularly
scheduled blocks of time to get their coursework done.

Assignment

1. Explain only four (4) challenges of studying at a college.

2. State ways you can undertake to avoid panicking when writing

examinations or tests.

Readings

1. Cottrell, S. (2008). The study skills handbook. Palgrave MacMillan,

Basingstoke, New York. Communication
2. Marshall, L. A & Rowland, F. (2006). A guide to learning
independently. Pearson Longman, Frenchs Forest, NSW.
3. Mutambo, L. N. (2013). BBA 140 Module: Business Communication
Skills. University of Lusaka, Zambia.
4. Turner, K. (2008). Essential academic skills. Oxford University Press,
South Melbourne, Victoria. Communication

7
 UNIT
U NIT 2:
2: INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION TO
TO

COMMUNICATION
C OMMUNICATION

Introduction

In the last unit, you learnt about challenges many students encounter in
college life. In this unit, you are going to look at communication in general.
You might wonder why you need to study communication. One answer is that
formal study and workplace career can improve your communication and
interpersonal skills.

8
 LearningOutcomes
Outcomes
Learning

Afterstudying
studyingthis
thisunit,
unit,you
youshould
shouldbe
beable
ableto:
to:
After
Definecommunication
communicationand
andeffective
effectivecommunication;
communication;
Define

Identifythe
themain
mainelements
elementsinincommunication
communicationprocess;
process;
Identify

Describetwo
Describe twomodels
modelsofofcommunication;
communication;and
and

Statethe
thebarriers
barriersto
toeffective
effectivecommunication.
communication.
State

2.1 What is Communication and Effective Communication?

To begin with, let me ask you a simple question: What is communication?

When I ask you this question, think of what comes to your mind immediately
it is paused. It may bring to your mind an interesting conversation you had
with your friends or teachers or parents. Many of you will relate it to the
forms of communication – talking and listening. However, communication
goes beyond that.

Interestingly, whatever your answers are, the word ‘communication’ has

been defined in many different ways, perhaps the simplest of which it is:

‘The process of transmitting information from one

person to another’ (Juliana, 2016).

9
This definition, however, is simplistic because it covers situations where
information is transmitted but is only understood by the sender.

However, the word communication originates from the Latin communicare

and the French communis, both of which means to make ‘common.’ The
definition underscores the fact that unless a common understanding results
from the exchange of information, there is no communication.

What about effective communication? How would you define it? Effective
communication is:

The extent to which the sender and receiver of a

message both attribute it with the same meaning.

The above definition implies the process in which information and its
meaning is conveyed by a sender to the receiver(s). An important implication
to be drawn from this definition is that whatever the message conveyed, and
whatever means are used to convey it, the sender and the receiver must
have agreement about its meaning, otherwise communication has not taken
place by merely the transmission of information.

2.2 Communication process

Have you ever wondered why some people can communicate so well while
others fail to get their message across? What are the elements that must be
present in the communication process before it can be successful and

10
effective? Look at Figure 1.1 below. The illustration shows clearly what
communication process is.

Fig. 1.1: Communication process

Communication originates as mental images within a person who desires to

convey those images to another. Mental images can include ideas, thoughts,
pictures, and emotions. The person who wants to communicate is called the
sender (see figure). To transfer an image to another person, the sender first
must transpose or translate the images into symbols that receivers can
understand. Symbols often are words but can be pictures, sounds, or sense
information (e.g., touch or smell). Only through symbols can the mental
images of a sender have meaning for others. The process of translating
images into symbols is called encoding.

Once a message has been encoded, the next level in the communication
process is to transmit the message to a receiver. This can be done in many
ways: during face-to-face verbal interaction, over the telephone, through
printed materials (letters, newspapers, etc.), or through visual media
(television, photographs). Other transmission channels include touch,
silence, gestures, clothing, and physical distances between sender and
receiver.
11
When a message is received by another person, a decoding process occurs.
Just as a sender must encode messages in preparation for transmission
through communication channels, receivers must sense and interpret the
symbols and then decode the information back into images, emotions, and
thoughts that make sense to them. When messages are decoded exactly as
the sender has intended, the images of the sender and the images of the
receiver match, and effective communication occurs.

Channel is the means through which the encoded message travels or gets
transmitted. As stated, within these channels there are a number of different
media that can be used, and these have different capacities to carry
information. This idea is reflected in what we refer to as information richness,
which can be defined as ‘the potential information - carrying capacity of the
medium.’ For example, face-to-face communication is usually very much
richer than the written form because it has a more personal focus and there
are many additional clues to help the receiver understand what is said. Face-
to-face communication also allows instantaneous feedback from the receiver,
which in turn allows the sender to check the receiver has correctly
interpreted the message (See Table 1.1).

Table 1.1: The Information Richness of selected communication Media

Informati
Potentia Source of on
l language richness
for Type of
Channel( feedbac communicat
Medium s) k ion (Symbols)
Immediat Words,
Face to face Verbal and e Personal intonation, Very high
Visual gestures, eye
12
 contact
Words,
Telephone Verbal Fast Personal intonation, High
phraseology
Written Slow Personal Words Medium
Memos,
letter and
e-mail
Formal
written: Written Very slow Impersonal Words Low
bulletins,
notices, etc.
Formal Written
numeric: and Very slow Impersonal Numerals Very low
budgetary
reports encrypted

2.3 Communication models

In the previous topics, you learnt about the definition of communication and
effective communication. In this topic, you will learn about basic models and
theories of communication which helps in understanding the process of
communication. Traditionally speaking, there are three standard models of
communication process: Linear, Interactive, and Transactional, and each
offers a slightly different perspective on the communication process. In this
topic we will focus only on the first two that offer perspectives and lessons
for you as a student as well as an upcoming extension officer.

Linear models of communication

The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in

which the speaker speaks and the listener listens. Laswell’s (1948) model
shown in Fig.1.2 was based on the five questions which effectively describe
how communication works:

13
Fig 1.2: Laswell’s communication model

The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-
way process where speakers only speak and never listen or send messages.
It also displays no feedback from the receiver. This is often referred to as the
“Bullet or transmission model of communication.” This theory clearly
indicates that the message has to be indulged into the mind of receiver of
message like a bullet.

The Interactive communication models

In this model, the sender transmits a message to the receiver and the
receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original
sender. In this model, feedback is experienced indicating that it is not a one
way but a two way communication process (See Fig.1.3).

Fig.1.3: Shannon – Weaver’s model of communication

2.4 Barriers to Effective Communication

There are several barriers to effective communication. Barriers are

influencing factors which impede or breakdown the continuous
14
communications loop or process. They block, distort, or alter the information.
The following are barriers to effective communication:

 Use of jargon - This happens when words or phrases that may not be
understood by an average person are used. For instance, if a
Veterinary Officer uses technical words or phrases in explaining to a
client, s/he may not understand what the Veterinary officer is trying to
say.

 Physiological Barriers - Physiological barriers may result from

individuals' personal discomfort, caused for example, by ill health, poor
eye sight, or hearing difficulties. These may also affect one’s
personality in many different and mostly negative ways.

 Physical barriers - Physical barriers include: Conversation going on

within hearing distance, or loud music or traffic noise in the
background, cell phone ringing, a high temperature and humidity, poor
ventilation, vibrations felt, a strong glare - all can contribute to
distortions in the sending and receiving of messages.

 Linguistics and Cultural Barriers - A language is the expression of the

thoughts and experiences of people in terms of their cultural
environment. When the same language is used in a different culture, it
takes on a different meaning. Messages or information in one language
may have completely different meanings in another and may be
offensive. For instance in Bemba the word ‘PESONDE’ means on
ÉARTH’ but a similar Lamba word ‘POSONDE’ means ‘OUTSIDE’.

 Psychological barriers - Psychological noise has an impact when

something concerned with either the message itself or the setting in
which communication takes place interferes with its transmission or
attributed meaning.

15
  Space proxemics, the use of interpersonal space when communicating
with others can be a source of noise. There are four zones of proximity
for communicating with others i.e.
 An intimate zone
 The personal zone
 The social zone
 And the public zone

An individual’s intimate and personal zones are private space reserved

for very close and intimate encounters. To enter these without
invitation often makes the sender feel so uncomfortable that barriers
are erected which interfere with the message.

 Information overload - This is yet another common cause of

communication breakdown. When too much information is
communicated at the same time, there are chances that the receiver
may not understand this information.

 Sex differences- This refers to the difference in sex (male and female).
For example, a man may say certain things to fellow men which may
not be perceived offensive but if the same is told to women, it may be
perceived to be offensive.

2.5 Factors influencing the choice of Medium of Communication

The choice of the medium of transmitting any message will obviously depend
on the following factors:

a) Cost: As a communicator, you need to weigh the cost of

communicating information against the results expected.
b) Confidentiality: There are certain messages that require to be sent to
the audience with privacy. As such, such messages cannot be
transmitted by using open means of media, such as fax, phone, etc.
16
 c) Safety and Security: If you want to send some very delicate and
sensitive information, of course there is need to consider using safety
channels of communication.
d) Urgency: Depending on the results one is looking for, you will most
probably choose a medium of communication which works within the
time available. In such a situation, you may use the fastest medium
such as a fax, e-mail, phone, etc.
e) Distance: You need have to judge the distance that the message has
to reach the receiver. If the receiver is within the same building, you
can walk there, though it will again depend on the type of message.
f) Size and location of your audience

Summary

In this unit, you learned about definitions of the term communication and
effective communication. The process and models of communication, have
also been discussed. Furthermore, barriers to effective communication and
criteria used to choose the channel of communication, have been explored.

1. Define effective communication.

2. Discuss the basic elements of communication process.
3. What is meant by “Information richness?”
4. Discuss four barriers to effective communication.

17
Readings
1. Abrell, R. (2004). Preventing communication breakdowns. Reston,
VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals.
2. Antos, G. (2011). Handbook of interpersonal communication. The
Hague, the Netherlands: Mouton De Gruyter.
3. Brownell, J. (2009). Listening: Attitudes, principles, and skills.
Boston, MA: Pearson.
4. Hasson, G. (2012). Brilliant Communication Skills. Great Britain: Pearson
Education.
5. Juliana (2016). Communication skills for Undergraduates: Lecture
Notes. Amoud University.
6. Kneen, J. (2011). Essential skills: Essential speaking and listening
skills. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
7. Pearson, J., and Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human
communication:
Understanding and sharing. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

18
UNIT
U VERBAL
3: V
NIT 3: ERBAL

COMMUNICATION
C OMMUNICATION
Introduction

In the last unit you learnt about different tenets of communication. In this
unit, you shall learn about verbal communication. Under verbal
communication, the meaning of verbal communication, listening skills, note-
taking, reading skills, presentation skills, attending interviews, etc. shall be
explored.

LearningOutcomes
Outcomes
Learning
Onsuccessful
successfulcompletion
completionofofthis
thisunit,
unit,you
youshould
shouldbe
beable
ableto:
to:
On
Defineverbal
verbalcommunication
communicationand andlistening;
listening;
Define
Recognizebarriers
barriersto
toeffective
effectivelistening;
listening;
Recognize
Takenotes
notesduring
duringlectures
lecturesand
andtutorials;
tutorials;
Take
Applydifferent
differentreading
readingskills
skillswhen
whenstudying;
studying;
Apply
Applystrategies
strategiesfor
forbecoming
becomingaapublic
publicspeaker;
speaker;and
and
Apply
Equip you
you with
with the
the knowledge
knowledge and
and understanding
understanding to
to conduct
conduct
Equip
effectivemeetings.
meetings.
effective

2.1 What is verbal communication?

19
You have already defined communication as the form in which an exchange
takes place in form of symbols or words and sentences. However, verbal
communication refers to the use of sounds and language to relay a message.

2.2 What is listening?

Without a doubt, listening is an activity that

most of us are not really taught how to do
effectively. We tend to be overly concerned with
the outgoing sounds, rather than the incoming
signals. Listening is as important, maybe even
more important, than speaking. What do we mean by the word “listening?”
Listening is a process of receiving, interpreting and reacting to the messages
received from the communication sender. Listening is also the process of
receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or non-
verbal messages. The listening process involves sensing, seeing, and
interpreting what is being communicated. As you attend residential school,
you will be learning for a while, therefore, listening to either lecturers or
instructors is cardinal. Below are behaviours that inhibit effective listening:

 Calling the subject uninteresting makes paying attention very

difficult.

 Judging the delivery instead of content makes it difficult to pay

attention.

 Jumping to conclusions makes the listener miss key points and

possibly the main idea of the message.

 “Know it all” attitude may be a form of behaviour often inhibiting

some people from active listening.

 Taking excessive notes during lectures take a lot of extra time and
energy during the listening process.

20
  Creating or tolerating distractions make concentration almost
impossible.

 Failing to listen to so called difficult material makes it even more

difficult to understand.

 Being inattentive - thinking about something else

entirely.

2.3 Taking lecture Notes

Once in a while, you will be required to be in residential

school. Therefore, you need to be taking lecture notes. Never make a
mistake by relying on soft copies or notes to be provided by your lecturer or
instructor. These may not help you much in examinations and tests, simply
because they are brief and to the point. In order to take notes from lectures
or any other instruction, as a student, you should be a good listener. This is
because some students start to write as soon as the lecturer starts speaking
without taking pain to listen attentively to what the lecturer is saying.
Effective note-taking from lectures, tutorials and readings is an essential skill
for a college student.

The ability to take good notes while listening to an important talk or lecture
is a skill that you will find useful in your studies and generally in life. Good
note-taking allows a permanent record for revision and a register of relevant
points that you can integrate with your own writing and speaking. There are
many reasons for taking lecture notes. Among them are:

 Making yourself take notes forces you to listen carefully and test your
understanding of the material;

 When you are reviewing, notes provide a gauge to what is important in

the text;

 Personal notes are usually easier to remember than the text;

 The writing down of important points helps you to remember then even
before you have studied the material formally;
21
Clues to take notes during lectures or tutorials

Generally, lectures or instructors usually give clues to what is important to

take down. Some of the more common clues are:

 Material written on the board, flip chart or slide.

 Repetitions.
 Emphasis:
 Emphasis can be judged by tone of voice and gesture.
 Emphasis can be judged by the amount of time the lecturer or
instructor spends on points and the number of examples he or
she uses.
 Word signals (e.g. "There are two points of view on . . . " "The
third reason is . . . " " In conclusion . . . ")
 Summaries given at the end of class or lab.
 Reviews given during revision period.

As you take lecture notes during residential school, each student should
develop his or her own method of taking notes, but many students find the
following suggestions helpful:

 Make your notes brief and to the point.

 Never use a sentence where you can use a phrase. Never use a
phrase where you can use a word.
 Use abbreviations and symbols where necessary and possible.
 Don’t try to take down everything the lecturer says.
 If you miss a statement or a point, skip a few spaces, and get the
information later from other students. Some students say that they
plan to rewrite or type their notes later. To do so is to use a double
amount of time; once to take the original notes and a second to
rewrite them. The advice is simple: DO IT RIGHT THE FIRST TIME!

22
  Date your notes.

2.4 Reading Skills

Reading skills are extremely important as they improve your ability to

communicate effectively. It is unfortunate that many students nowadays
have problems with reading culture. However, at college level you are
expected to do much more reading than at a secondary school because it is
not called “reading for a diploma” for nothing. In every unit, you are given
references or readings. This simply implies that you are required to read
these literature to broaden your understanding. The best students do well in
examinations and the corporate world by reading beyond what the lecturer
has given. The question is: what is involved in reading? Reading involves the
process of constructing meaning from a given text, and that involves the co-
ordination of interrelated sources of information. Reading is a process that
must include thinking before, during, and after reading.

The following are tips that can help you read effectively:

1) Identifying the right material

As you plan to look for reading documents, you clearly need to determine if a
publication is going to provide the right information for your assignment. The
sort of things you could consider include:

 Is the topic you are interested covered by the document; that is does it
provide the right information?
 Does it cover the topic appropriately? Is it too basic, detailed or
complex?

23
The question is, how do you check quickly that the document does in fact
meet the above points? There are a number of ways, among them are:

 Read the introductory information about the document;

 The title of the document;
 The table of contents;
 The introduction, preface or summary of a document; and
 Have a look at the conclusions and summaries of a document.

2) Efficient and effective reading

i) Read a few pages through:
 Scanning: Scanning is reading quickly to search for specific
information. The technique you use when you're looking up a
name in the phone book: you move your eye quickly over the
page to find particular words or phrases that are relevant to
the task you're doing. In the same manner, it is useful to scan
parts of texts to see if they are going to be useful to you.

 Skimming: This is the fastest reading speed. Skimming is

reading quickly to gain a general idea, impression, overview
or gist of the reading materials e.g. table of contents,
introductions headings, sub-headings, pictures, graphics, and
conclusions of sections. It is the technique you use when you
are going through a newspaper or magazine: you read quickly
to get the main points, and skip over the detail.

24
 ii) Detailed reading: for extracting information accurately

iii) Underlining and highlighting: As you read, underline and

highlight what you think is the most important parts of what you
are reading. However, you can do this with your own copy of
texts or on photocopies, not with borrowed books.

2.5 Presentation Skills and Public Speaking

Read this story

Jane was a head counselor at Camp Sunrise. On Awards Day at the end of
the season, she was expected to stand up and speak to the large group of
campers and their parents. Jane had prepared her talk and even memorized
what she wanted to say. But as she sat on the stage waiting to be
introduced, she became nervous. She had been dreading this moment for
days.

Finally, her name was called. She stood up

and walked slowly to the podium. As she
moved to the center stage, her legs felt
wobbly. Her palms were sweaty and
stomach started doing flip-flops. She
looked out at all those faces. Suddenly, she wished she could disappear.

“Thank you for coming here today,” she began in a tense, high-pitched
voice. “It’s been a wonderful opportunity to work with so many great
campers this summer. Now I’d like to tell you a story about one of them.”

All eyes were on her. Everyone seemed to be waiting for her to begin the
story. They waited . . . and waited . . . and waited. Jane’s mind had suddenly
gone blank. She couldn’t remember what she wanted to say. “I knew it
yesterday,” she thought. “Why can’t I remember it now? Why?” It seemed
25
like an hour had passed. But in reality it was only 30 seconds. Panic seized
her. Jane knew everyone was staring
at her.

And she just wanted to get out of

there. She could stand it no longer.
Jane turned from the audience and
fled the stage.

From the above scenario, you can

conclude that the ability to deliver an
effective talk is one of the most valuable skills you can possess. Many people
are afraid of public speaking and say ‘I’d rather die than give a speech!’ How
many times have you heard that phrase uttered? Have you ever made the
statement or at least thought it? In fact, recent polls conducted in the USA
indicate that they fear it more than death itself. Stage fright is not
uncommon, even among good speakers. But they generally don’t react the
way Jim did. Instead, there are several approaches they use to conquer their
fears.

As you are anticipating to become an extension officer or better still to

present your research reports, public speaking is often essential. At the
same time, in case you are a class representative, church leader, union
committee member, or president of a union, you are often called on to stand
up and speak to a group. Thus, skills in public speaking are inevitable.

In this topic you are going to discuss strategies for becoming a better public
speaker, delivering effective presentations and calming nerves that are
associated with public speaking. Here are some tips you can employ:

26
Preparing for a Presentation

Question 1. Who? The first thing you need to do immediately you are
assigned to speak to the public is to know who your audience is. For
example, presentation should always be packaged to suit the listener's level
of understanding:

 Ask who will be in the audience? (Are they adults, teachers, members
of the business community, school board members, is it all men, all
women, both? Are they older, younger, a variety? Etc.)

 What do they already know about the topic? Are they experts on the
topic?

Question 2: What? Secondly, prepare your content or material thoroughly.

Nothing is worse for nerves than trying to give a presentation on a topic that
you do not know! It is up to you to make sure that you take time to read the
material and become familiar with each topic. Remember: Your audience will
ask you questions and will look to you as the expert.

Question 3: When? What time of day is the presentation - early, late, right
after lunch? This can help you decide the teaching aid to use. After a meal
and late sessions are usually the most difficult to keep audience attention. A
variation of presentation formats (e.g. slides or movie), audience
involvement activities (ask them questions on the subject to get their input)
and use of appropriate humor are all ideas which might improve the
presentation chances for success.

Question 4: Where? What type of room or facility will you be using? Will
everyone see visuals if you decide to use them? Will a microphone be
needed? Are there distractions in the room? Is there noise adjacent to the
facility which could be distracting? Are the lights easily dimmed or shut off?
What type of dress will you wear?

27
Structuring Your Presentation
This is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the presentation. The
structure should be clear to both you and your audience. Different authors
advocate different formats for structuring a presentation, each of which has
their merits. In simplest terms however, a presentation should have an
introduction, body and conclusion.

Introduction: Tell them what it is you plan to tell them

Through the introduction you should grab your audience’s attention and set
the scene. Ways of getting your audience’s attention include asking a
rhetorical or intriguing question, providing a relevant and interesting fact,
giving an anecdote, outlining the valuable information you hope the
audience will gain from the presentation/telling them why they need to know
the information, giving a quote or making a dramatic prediction.

Your theme should be made clear from the start. Start the audience thinking
about the subject matter of your presentation by, for example, a statement
of your main objective. It can also be helpful to present the structure to your
talk, by explaining briefly how you plan to proceed with it.

The Main Body: Tell them your key points

Select the main points that support your argument but only include as much
detail as your audience needs. Also, be aware that people will not remember
too many points.
Once you have decided on the key points, organise them into a sequence
that makes sense to you. Explain and build your points using supporting
information and evidence.

Conclusion: Tell them what you told them

28
There are various ways of concluding a presentation including changing the
pace, using a new visual aid, summarising your main points, drawing the
conclusion and its importance, making recommendations, asking for
questions, getting feedback, asking for or recommending particular actions,
getting some sort of commitment from the group to the advocated course of
action, or ending by thanking the group for their time and attention.

Do not end suddenly. Give your audience some idea that you are coming to a
close; eg. ‘And now, before I finish’ or ‘In conclusion’ etc.

Techniques of Delivering Your Presentation

We have covered most of the preparation work. Now it’s time to get ready to
actually deliver your presentation. There are a few tips which you can follow
on the presentation day, and these include:

 As you present add humour whenever appropriate and possible, not in

excess. Keep audience interested throughout your entire presentation.
Remember that an interesting speech makes time fly, but a boring
speech is always too long to endure even if the presentation time is
the same.
 Look pleasant, enthusiastic, confident, proud, but not arrogant. Remain
calm. Appear relaxed, even if you feel nervous.
 Dress appropriately for the occasion. Be solemn if your topic is serious.
Present the desired image to your audience.
 Maintain culturally appropriate eye contact with your audience. Look
straight into the eyes of a number of people in the audience, and every
now and then glance at the whole audience while speaking. Use your
eye contact to make everyone in your audience feel involved. Avoid
looking the same person, otherwise you may be suspected of
mischievous aspects;

29
  Vary the tone of your voice and avoid dramatizing, if necessary. If a
microphone is available, adjust and adapt your voice accordingly.
 Body language is important. Standing, walking or moving about with
appropriate hand gesture or facial expression is preferred to sitting
down or standing still with head down and reading from a prepared
speech.
 When using audio-visual aids to enhance your presentation, be sure all
necessary equipment is set up and in good working order prior to the
presentation. Master the use of presentation software such as
PowerPoint well before your presentation. Do not over-dazzle your
audience with excessive use of animation, sound clips, or gaudy colors
which are inappropriate for your topic. If possible, have an emergency
backup system readily available in case of power failure. Don’t turn
your back to the audience when writing.

 Do not read from notes for any extended length of time although it is
quite acceptable to glance at your notes infrequently. If you make an
error, correct it, and continue.

 Know when to START and STOP talking. To start and end your
presentation, tell them what you are going to say and tell them what
you have told them, respectively. Leave your listeners with a positive
impression and a sense of completion. Do not belabour your closing
remarks. Thank your audience and sit down.

2.6 Conducting Effective Meetings

Meetings can be effective, ineffective, or a complete waste of time. Even the

best meetings are not as productive as they could be. However, despite the
importance of meetings, many people dread meetings because they are
unproductive and don't achieve objectives. Useless, frustrating,
unproductive, and waste of time are key words that are often associated with
30
meetings. The big question is WHY? Some common reasons why meetings
fail to accomplish their objectives are outlined below:

 Many hours are wasted because of poor chairing;

 Poor meeting preparations;
 Difficulties in meeting quorum;
 Lack of training on how to conduct meetings effectively; and
 Many meetings include people who do not need to be there.

This topic will be your guide through identifying ways to plan for an effective
meeting(s). This topic therefore aims at setting out some clear guidelines for
anyone who is involved in chairing meetings or leading discussion groups.
The guidelines are practical and will contribute to making meeting more
effective, productive and efficient.

Roles of a Chairperson

 First decide if there is need for a meeting: Did you know that there are
more efficient ways to meet your organisational objectives without
holding a meeting? If your answer is in affirmative, that is fine because
holding a meeting is expensive, in terms of time, resources etc. Some
of the alternatives you can employ to address the institution’s
objectives include: phone calls, conference calls, memos/letters, postal
mail, e-mails, and teleconferencing.

 Preparations for a Meeting: Good meetings aren't accidents - they are

the result of good planning. The time you spend before will result in
major benefits later by efficiently using the meeting time,
accomplishing objectives, and avoiding the need for follow-up
meetings.

31
  Ensure Quorum is met. Before a meeting can be legally transacted, it
requires a quorum—the minimum number of members who must be
present at the meeting before business can be legally transacted. The
requirement of a quorum is a protection against unrepresentative
action by an unduly small number of people. In the absence of a
quorum, any business transacted is null and void. If a quorum cannot
be reached, any transaction of business is void and the meeting needs
to be adjourned immediately.
 Preside, maintain order and ensure that the group does a good job of
the work;
 Establish and Use Ground Rules - Ground rules are explicit rules that
the group agrees to follow to help them facilitate productive
discussions.
 Together with the secretary decide the agenda item of the next
business meeting, of course with some inputs from the members;
 Start and end the meeting on time;
 Keep the person on the floor to the point and ensure that one person
speaks at a time;
 Make an effort to be impartial and avoid arguing with members at all
costs;
 Don't use your position as a chairperson to impose your personal ideas
and opinions on the group; and
 Learn to speak after others have spoken.

The Secretary
 Ensure the effective administration of the meeting, including all work
before and after the meeting, e.g., organizing the date, time and place
of meeting.
 Can also advise people on the application of the rules of business
 Generally, the secretary is to have close relationship with the
chairperson to ensure that the proceedings go smoothly as planned.

32
  Ensure that the agenda is prepared well in advance and distributed,
together with the minutes. The agenda can be printed and distributed
either in advance or at the meeting. Or it can be written on a
chalkboard or whiteboard where everyone can see it.

Points on a typical agenda may include:

 Welcome/opening remarks by the chairperson;

 Apologies/Roll call;
 Reading of previous minutes, corrections, adoption, matters
arising from the previous meeting;
 A list of specific points to be discussed — this is now items to be
discussed;
 Any Other Business (AOB) — however, in modern business
meetings, this can be avoided by distributing agenda in advance
for other agenda inclusion or prior to the meeting, attendees can
be given time to suggest agenda items;
 Take note of the proceedings during and after the meeting. Minutes
need not be very detailed (you don't need to write down what
everyone says). They should aim to include:
 Record attendance;

 Venue of meeting, date, start time;

 Topics discussed: Record motions exactly as they are stated;

 The name of the proposer and seconder of the motion;
 Record volunteers;
 Actions taken;
 Date and venue for the next meeting;

 Arrange/announce details of next meeting

 Ensure that the minutes are distributed to the members before the
next meeting.

33
  Ensure that the resources for the meeting are ready. Make sure the
room is open and set up properly.
 Prior to the meeting, make sure everyone knows the time and place.

2.7 Attending interviews

An interview is a formal meeting where specific information is sought from a

person through oral questioning. The main idea of interviews is to collect
specific information or to assess a person’s suitability for a position or role.

At some point in your career or life, it’s likely that you were or will be
interviewed. The invitation to an interview or to be shortlisted means you
have been identified as a candidate who meets the minimum qualifications
and demonstrate potential as a viable candidate. However, all what is
required is to personally affirm information submitted in the application and
CV. The following are some the tips you can apply especially when attending
job interviews:

Tip #1: Research!

Nothing is more important than preparation when it comes to attending an

interview. Preparation requires you to do research. Research about:
 The organisation,
 The job description,
 It’s objectives,
 Organogram,
 Prepare for standard questions.

Here are eleven common questions you are likely to be asked in an

employment interview:

1. Tell us about yourself.

2. Have you ever done this type of work before?

34
 3. Why should we employ you?

4. What are your greatest strengths? Weaknesses?

5. Give us an example of a time when you worked under pressure.

6. Why did you leave your last job?

7. How has your education and/or experience prepared you for this
job?

8. Why do you want to work here?

9. What are your long-range goals? Where do you see yourself

three years from now?

10. Do you have any questions?

When you are asked a question in the interview, look for its purpose as well
as its literal meaning. For example, “Tell me about yourself” may sound like
an invitation for you to share your text message win in last year’s
competition, but it is not. The employer is looking for someone who can
address their needs. Telling the interviewer about yourself is an opportunity
for you market your professional impression.

Tip #2: Organize all necessary documents!

Organize your materials so you can easily access them for application
purposes and on the interview itself. Know what time you are to attend the
interview and be there early. Organize all your details including clothing,
travel route, contact phone numbers, materials, etc. in advance so you don’t
feel rushed, flustered, or confused before or during the interview.

Tip #3: Behave!

35
You know how your mother told you to “behave?!” Well, there’s no better
time to behave than in an interview. It’s a time to be professional and use
your best manners. Today there are more opportunities than ever to do the
wrong thing in an interview. For example,

 Don’t let your cell phone ring when you attend an interview.
 Even while you are waiting, try to avoid constant texting or listening to
music through headphones, or playing games on your phone. Someone
may be watching you to see how you spend your time.

Tip #4: Thank!

An important part of attending an interview is how you leave an interview.

Thank the interviewers for the opportunity to present your qualifications. You
can show your interest by asking questions about when you can expect to
hear from them. This shows an expression that you are interested in having
the job.

SUMMARY
In this unit, you learned that verbal communication is done through different
ways such as: listening, reading, taking notes; presentations, meetings; and
interviews. In the next unit, you are going to look at another type of
communication which is rarely considered in every day’s interaction. In
short, you are going to look at the basics of non-verbal communication.

Activity

1. What distinguishes listening from hearing?

2. Identify the three main barriers to listening. Which of these barriers is
most problematic for you? What can you do about it?

36
 3. Think about the last meeting you attended either for the
farmers/community or as an institution. What was the objective of the
meeting? Did all the people who attended needed to be there? Did the
meeting last longer than necessary? Could it have been organized or
planned better?
4. Create a sample agenda for a Cooperative meeting to discuss the
quarterly report on a demonstration you conducted with the farmers.

Readings

1. Chaney, L. H., & Lyden, J. A. (1998). Managing meetings to

manage your image. Supervision. 59(5), 13.
2. Corfield, R. (2009). Successful interview skills: how to prepare,
answer tough questions and get your ideal job. (5th Ed.). Kogan
Page, London.
3. Ferrari, B. (2012). Power listening: Mastering the most critical
business skill of all. New York: Penguin.
4. Friesen, B. K. (2010). Designing and conducting your first
interview project. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
5. Hoppe, M. H. (2006). Active listening: Improve your ability to
listen and lead [ebook]. Greensboro, NC: Centre for Creative
Leadership.
6. Ivey, A. (2010). Perfect Presentations: How you can Master the Art
of successful Presentations. UK, Andrew and Ventus Publishing.
7. Murphy, M. (2013). No More Pointless Meetings. p.1.
8. McPheat, S. (2012). Effective Communication Skills, UK, Ventus
Publishing

9. Van, E. J. (2010). Presentation skills for students. Palgrave

Macmillan, Hampshire, New York.

37
UNIT
U NIT 4: NON-
4: N VERBAL
ON-V ERBAL
COMMUNICATION
C OMMUNICATION

Introduction

In the previous unit, you learnt about verbal communication. In this unit, you
will look at non-verbal communication and see how it affects effective
transmission of information. As you have seen, much of the meaning people
derive from communication, comes from non-verbal cues. While people tend
to focus on what they say, it is the non-verbal communication that proves to
be significant in conveying messages and forming judgements about others.

38
 Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:

Define non-verbal communication;
Fully explain the forms of non-verbal communication;
State the importance of distance you should be keeping when
communicating with your clients of opposite sexes to avoid social
conflicts that may hinder your mission.

4.1 What is Non-Verbal Communication?

Communicating a message without using arbitrary symbols i.e., words or

meaning of words, is termed as non-verbal communication. In other words,
non-verbal communication is the process of conveying a message without
the use of words.

4.2 Some forms of Non-Verbal Communication

Different experts and specialists have classified non-verbal communication

into various categories. Some authorities consider non-verbal signals to be
even more important than words. Whether you are communicating feelings
or ideas, a number of non-verbal factors are at work. The following are some
of the forms of non-verbal communication:

a) Paralanguage. Basically, this is focusing on how the voice

communicates. Paralanguage involves verbal and nonverbal aspects of
speech that influence meaning, including tone, inflection, emphasis

39
 pausing, and even silence. Although the words are the same, the
receiver perceives different messages when voice emphasises
changes. Paralanguage often reveals the emotions, conscious and
unconscious, underlying our words.

b) Kinesics. Kinesics focusses on how the body communicates. It would

be inaccurate however, to suggest that specific positions and
movements are infallible indicators of underlying motivation. Such
simplicity of course, belies reality. Although we may not be able to
catalog every body movement and indicate its hidden meaning, we
should be aware that facial expression, eye contact, posture, and
gestures exert a significant effect on listener’s perceptions. Kinesics is
the most generally used medium of communication.
 Facial Expression. Experts estimate that we can make and recognize
nearly 250,000 distinct facial expressions. The most common
expressions are interest, enjoyment, surprise, distress, shame,
contempt, anger, and fear. In conversations, facial expressions are a
principal source of feedback. Alert communicators display and
interpret facial expressions accurately; they modify their messages to
produce the effect they intend.

 Eye Contact. Often described as the "windows of the soul," eyes are
the most expressive element in face-to-face communication.
Individuals who maintain direct eye contact are usually considered to
be open, honest, and trustworthy. Shifty eyes suggest dishonesty; and
a downward gaze may be interpreted as a sign of submission,
inferiority, or humility. It must be remembered, of course, that the
interpretation of much nonverbal communication is culture dependent.

 Posture. The way you stand and hold your body also sends messages
about your self confidence. Stooped or bowed shoulders may signal

40
 that you are burdened, self conscious, lacking confidence, submissive,
beaten, guilty, or afraid. A straight back with squared shoulders
typifies strength and responsibility. Hunched shoulders suggest
anxiety or weariness.

 Gestures. Some hand gestures are recognized and easily interpreted.

A circle formed with the index finger and thumb signals satisfaction,
shaking the index finger indicates a warning, and showing the palm
symbolizes a peaceful greeting. Other gestures are not so easily
translated. The interpretation of these gestures and others depends
greatly on the situation and also on the culture.

c) Image—How appearances influence communication. The

image an individual projects and the objects surrounding that person
can communicate non-verbally. Clothing, for example, tells a great
deal about an individual's status, occupation, self-image, and
aspirations. Appearances definitely affect perceptions. If you look
successful, you are often perceived to be successful. In addition to
clothing, a person's possessions and ornaments send messages. In a
business office, the condition of an individual's desk, the appearance
(or lack) of personal decorations, the kind of paintings on the wall,
the quality of the furniture, and the books or magazines in view
suggest the occupant's status, work habits, personal habits and
interests, education, and personality traits.

d) Proxemics. Have you ever felt uncomfortable during a conversation

because the other person was standing too close and invading your
space? We all have a need for physical space, although that need
differs depending on the culture, situation, personality, age, sex,
status and closeness of the relationship. The distance that the people
keep themselves between the speaker and the listener when they are

41
 communicating is termed as Proxemics. Sociologists report four
territorial zones:

 Intimate space (up to 45 cm),

 Personal space (30-65cm)
 Social space (120-280cm), and
 Public space (>300).

Summary

In this unit, you learnt that ideas and feelings are communicated by more
than the words we speak or write. Messages are also sent nonverbally by
paralanguage (how the voice sounds), by kinesics (facial expressions, eye
contact, posture, and gestures), by image (clothing, objects, and
appearances), and by proxemics (spatial relationships). Becoming aware of
nonverbal signals helps you improve your ability to control these elements in
your own communication.

Activity

1. Does it limit or enhance your understanding of communication to view

non-verbal communication as that which is not verbal communication?
Explain your answer and discuss.
2. What are the various dimensions or forms of non-verbal
communication?
3. Describe how body language compliments verbal symbols?

42
Readings

1. Hargie, O., Dickson, D., & Tourish, D. (2004). Communication Skills for
Effective Management. Palgrave Macmillan.
2. Hampshire, M. S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston,
MA: Allyn & Bacon.
3. Seiler, W., & Beall, M. (2000). Communication: Making connections, (4th
Ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
4. Moore, Ninja-Jo, et al. Non-verbal Communication: Studies and
Applications. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
5. Monippally, M, M. (2001). Business Communication Strategies. New
Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd.,

UNIT
U WRITTEN
5: W
NIT 5: COMMUNICATION
RITTEN C OMMUNICATION

Introduction

43
In unit 4 you learnt about non-verbal communication. In this unit, you will
learn about written communication. The written word is another medium of
communication. It is an extension of the spoken word and is commonly used
in organizations. The written word is used in application letters, memoranda,
circulars, reports, electronic mails etc.

LearningOutcomes
Learning Outcomes
Uponcompletion
completionofofthis
thisunit,
unit,you
youshould
shouldbe beable
ableto:
to:
Upon
Stateclearly
clearlywhat
whatan
anapplication
applicationletter
letteris;
is;
State
Explainwhat
whataareport
reportis;
is;
Explain
Identifythe
thecomponents
componentsofofaaMemo;
Memo;
Identify
Applyskills
skillsininwriting
writinggood
goodjob
jobapplication
applicationletters,
letters,memos,
memos,and
and
Apply
academicandandplacement
placementreports.
reports.
academic

5.1. Letters
There are many types of letters but they are generally classified into two i.e.
informal and formal letters. Informal letters are usually those that are used
for casual or personal communication between two individuals. They do not
have any standard format in which they are supposed to be written. On the
other hand, formal letters are letters that are written between individuals,
organisations or individuals and organisations for impersonal or business
purposes. In this section, we shall discuss some of these letters but shall pay
the most attention to job application letter.

5.1.1 Job Application letters

44
Have you not wondered why may be at one time your job application letter
was not honoured? Did you take time to ask yourself why you were not even
short listed? Many times, job applicants fail to convince their potential
employers of their suitability simply because they failed to meet the
expectations. Therefore, it is necessary for you to learn how letters are
formulated. This is because letter writing is a skill that needs to be mastered.
For this reason, you must have a good knowledge of the principles of letter
writing, the correct layout for the main kinds and uses of letters for
successful communication in different situations.

A job application letter must attempt to do three things:

i) Catch your reader’s attention favourably;
ii) Convince your reader that you are qualified for the position; and
iii) Ask for an interview.

You should try to achieve the three objectives in a one-page letter. If you are
applying for a specific job which has been advertised, identify the job by title,
and state where you came to know about it. Remember that an organization
may have advertised for several jobs on the same day in the same
newspaper or professional journal. If you do not specify which job it is that
you are applying for, it will confuse your reader, and give her/him sufficient
reason to move on to the next application. However, the following is the
standard letter format that applies to job application letters:

(a) Sender’s address.

(b) Receiver’s names and address.
(c) Date of writing the letter.
(d) Appropriate greeting or salutation, e.g., Dear Sir, Dear Mr. Jones, etc
(e) Reference/Subject.
(f) First paragraph: Briefly state how you learnt about the vacancy or
position or job. You may refer to previous correspondence,
acknowledgement of a request, the position you are applying for.

45
 (g) Second paragraph: This paragraph should describe skills or work
experiences that make you most qualified for the job. This is where
you hook the reader’s attention by telling her something she cares
about and persuading her to consider you for the position.
(h) Closing paragraph: It is a summary of what has been presented before.
Never introduce new ideas in this section. Conclude the letter by
asking for an interview.
(i) Signature and name of writer.

EXERCISE

Write a cover letter. Select a position for which

you are qualified based on your work experience
and skills. Highlight these skills and experiences
and save the cover letter so you can refer to it.

Sample of an application letter:

NATURAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT COLLEGE

PO BOX 310099, Addressee
46
LUSAKA.

25th December, 2018.

The Human Resource Manager,
Tanganda Farms Ltd, Addressor
Po Box 21456.
KAWAMBWA.

Dear Sir/Madam, Salutation

RE: APPLICATION FOR POSITION OF FARM MANAGER

Reference
Reference is made to the above captioned subject. I am applying for the
position of Assistant Manager which you recently advertised in the
Kamungoma Newspaper of 23rd November, 2018.
First paragraph

I have been working as a Farm Manager for the above institution for the last
6 years. Currently, I am pursuing an agricultural course with a major in
Agricultural Engineering. My study will finish at the end of December, 2018
therefore, I am looking forward to joining a progressive farm such as
Tanganda Farms Ltd. As a professional, I am able to design fish ponds in all
contexts. Second paragraph

I shall appreciate attending interviews at any time and look forward to

hearing from you. Enclosed are photocopies of my curriculum vitae, and
other relevant documents.
Closing
paragraph

Yours faithfully,
Your signature

47
Daka Magumesa

5.2. Curriculum Vitae (CV)

Curriculum Vitae which is Latin for “the course of one’s life, is a list of one’s
qualifications and experience. In other words, it is a summary of someone’s
experience, skills and education.

A Curriculum Vitae is a self-marketing tool and getting an interview can

depend on how good your CV is. Your CV is your chance to show an employer
you have the skills and experience needed, and that you are the right person
for the job.

However, many times people are baffled on how they should write and
present their CVs. The way you present your CV can have an overwhelming
influence over whether your CV is even read. The format depends on
individual organization’s needs, however, the following aspects are common
to all formats:

 Construct your CV with your prospective employer in mind. Look at the

job advert or specification and think about what the job involves, and
what the employer needs. Find out about the main activities of the
employer.
 Tailor your CV to the job. Your CV shouldn't be your life story but
should be tailored for the job you're applying for, focusing on the parts
that are important for that particular job.
 Make your CV clear, neat and tidy. Get somebody to check your
spelling and grammar. No-one wants to read a CV that is squashed
together and includes too much information. Your CV should be easy to
read with space between each section and plenty of white space.

48
Curriculum Vitae Sample

1. Personal Details
Name : Kachali Davis
Date of Birth : 06/01/79
Sex : Male
Your recent colour photo
Place of Birth : Nsenga District
Marital Status : Married
N.R.C Number : 218765/63/1
Cell phone Number : 260 095 5452860

PROFILE: As an Agricultural Engineer, with vast expertise in farm structural

designs, I am able to design fish ponds of all kinds.

2. Education Qualifications
Institution Subject Qualificati Period Examining
on Body
NRDC Agricultural Diploma 2015- UNZA
engineering 2018
Kasaka Fisheries Fisheries science Certificate 2012- MACO
Institute 2014
Nsenga High General Certificate 2009- E.C.Z
School education 2011
Chabwela Basic Junior Education Certificate 2008- E.C.Z
School 2010

3. Work Experience

49
DATES POST RESPONSIBITIES
2014- Fisheries Design farm
Todate Assistant structures
technologist

4. PROJECTS & RESEARCH ACTIVITIES

2014: Carried out a project on: Treatment of fungal disease using
Moringa.
2014-2015- Designed techniques for fish preservation in Mpulungu.

5. SEMINARS AND WORKSHOPS

YEAR WORKSHOP SEMIN PLACE HELD DURATION
AR
2004 TOT on fish gears Galu Lodge 2 weeks
2005 Computer–word Taj Pamodzi 2 weeks
processing Hotel

Referees: Here you include the names, addresses, posts, and phone
numbers of people who know you very well, two from academic and one
from profession point of view.

5.3. Memorandum

A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is a written communication

is normally used to effectively convey simple information or instructions to
someone or a small group of people within an organization. A memorandum
or Memoranda (plural) are used for such things as:

 Giving brief instructions about a new procedure;

 Conveying a single item of information;
 Reminding people about existing arrangements or regulations;

50
  Requesting information or suggestions; and
 Serving as a covering note when sending a report or file.

NB: Memoranda (abbreviated as Memos) are restricted to internal use only

consequently, they are usually referred to as Internal Memos. As stated,
memo’s purpose is often to inform, but it occasionally includes an element of
persuasion or a call to action. All organizations have informal and formal
communication networks.

Memo Format

A memo has the following components:

1. Main heading – it must be written MEMORANDUM or ‘INTERNAL

MEMO’ in bold to make it stand out among other papers and centred.
2. To and From headings – these make clear who the sender and
recipients are. The position of the sender must be written. The name
or position of the recipient(s) individually or as a group must be
written too.
3. Date – This is very important because it indicates when the
communication was written and it makes easy for filing.
4. Subject heading – this is a brief sentence to show what the memo is
all about.
5. First paragraph - this gives the background, context or reason for the
communication.
6. Second paragraph – this gives the actual message i.e. the information,
reminder or instructions which must follow the first paragraph
logically.

NB: Never append your signature at the end of the Memo. Signatures can be
done on From heading (alongside the sender). For longer memos the second
paragraph will contain two or more points giving more details of the
communication. Below is an example of a memo;

51
Sample of a memo:

INTERNAL MEMORANDUM

To : The Farm Manager,

From : All Unionized workers (Signature & date stamp),
Date : 22nd December, 2018.

SUBJECT : GENERAL MEETING

This serves to inform you that on 24 th December, 2018, there will be a

general meeting on working conditions. Place of meeting is Boardroom and
time is 09:00 hours. Please, observe punctuality, and all should attend.

5.4. Reports
As a student or as you get employed and in charge of any organizational
section, you will be expected to write
reports such as field reports, business
reports, research reports, laboratory
reports, industrial attachment reports or
teaching experience reports. Poor report
writing can lead to the downfall of a
company or organization.

Many employees and students get

struggled and confronted with how to
write a ‘report’ and what to write. Confusion often arises about the writing
style, what to include, the language to use, the length of the document and

52
other factors. This topic aims to disentangle some of these elements, and
provide you with some advice designed to help you to write a good report.

The first thing that you need to know is “What is a report?” A report is a formal
piece of written work based on facts, process or test. It is usually written in a
concise style, giving precise detail and written for a particular purpose and
audience.

Requirements for the precise form and content of a report will vary between
organisation and departments and in study between courses, from tutor to
tutor, as well as between subjects, so it’s worth finding out if there are any
specific guidelines before you start.

Types of Reports:

Though it is difficult to give a rigid classification of reports, we can say that

some of the common types of reports are:

Regular and Routine reports

 Workshop safety reports
 Maintenance reports
 Progress reports
 Staff appraisal reports
 Financial reports
 Field visit reports
 Educational reports
 Laboratory reports
c) Occasional Reports
 Accident reports
 Disciplinary reports
 Research reports
d) Specially commissioned Reports

53
  Market research reports
 Policy change reports
 Production reports
 Investment in new equipment reports

In this section, we shall discuss laboratory reports or experiments,

placements and progress and field reports.

Laboratory Reports
A laboratory report should have the following components:
i) Subject or topic
ii) Apparatus and other materials used
iii) Procedure
iv) Observations
v) Conclusions
vi) Drawings, diagrams, or graphs.

You should identify the experiment you are reporting on and indicate the
apparatus and other materials used. If the purpose of the experiment is not
obvious, you should explain it in the body of the report and give a detailed
explanation of how you performed the experiment. Include your observations
also. In the concluding part of your report, you should give the results of your
experiment. If an interpretation of the results is going to be useful to the
reader, provide such an analysis in your conclusion. You may include your
recommendations as well.

54
In experiment reports, the passive voice is more suitable than the active
voice. So use the passive voice and include illustrations like diagrams,
drawings or graphs to make your report clear.

Example of a laboratory report

Here I will show you how to report an experiment conducted in a chemistry
laboratory:

Aim
To prepare hydrogen gas and study its properties.

Apparatus
Woulfe bottle; thistle funnel; glass jars; with discs as covers; delivery tube
bent at three places; two corks, each with a single hole; trough with water;
and beehive shelf.

Materials
Granulated zinc, dilute sulphuric acid, matches.

Procedure
i) The apparatus is set up as shown in figure1.1 below.
ii) 5 grams of granulated zinc are put into the woulfe bottle.
iii) Make sure that the lower end of the thistle funnel is very near the
bottom of the Woulfe bottle.
iv) Diluted sulphuric acid is poured down the thistle funnel to cover zinc.
v) It is observed that as soon as the acid comes in contact with zinc, a
gas is produced.
vi) The gas is collected in the jar by the displacement of water. The
mouth of the gas jar is closed with a glass disc. The jar is removed
and put in the same position, that is, upside down, with the disc
cover on the table.

55
Fig. 1.1: Preparation of hydrogen gas.

Observations
i) The colour of the gas jar is observed. The gas is colourless.
ii) The gas is odourless also.
iii) A lighted splinter is introduced into the gas jar. The gas begins to
burn at the mouth of the jar. From this we infer that the gas inside
the jar is hydrogen.
iv) To test whether the gas inside the jar is lighter than air, the gas jar
is covered with a glass disc and placed in an upright position on the
table. An empty jar is placed with its mouth downward on the gas
jar. The glass disc between the two jars is removed. After two
minutes, a burning splinter is introduced into each jar. The gas in
the upper jar starts burning, but the gas in the lower jar does not
burn. This indicates that the gas is lighter than air and has moved
from the lower jar to the upper jar.

56
Conclusion
The gas collected into the jar is colourless, odourless, combustible and
lighter than air. As it has all properties of hydrogen, the gas must be
hydrogen.

Progress Reports
A progress report is an intermediate report designed to communicate
information, usually to your immediate supervisor. Most sponsors and any
serious organization require progress reports upon implementation and
completion of activities. The purpose of this report is to update the client on
the progress of the project/programme - its achievements, critical issues and
any problems that may have arisen since the last reporting period and the
plans for solving or overcoming these problems.

Progress reports take many forms - memos, letters, short reports, formal
reports or presentations. And many organizations have very specific
reporting requirements for all their required reports. These requirements
may include specific outline to be followed, when and where to submit the
reports, number of copies to be sent, page limits, type of font to be used,
etc.

Regardless of the specific format, most progress reports have the following
components:

Title :
Reporter (name, and title):
Date :
Table of contents :

Abstract: You should briefly state the most important issues such as the
context, goals, achievements, problems/challenges encountered and
methods for overcoming them.
57
1. Introduction. You should fully detail the background to the project.
 Background/History/Context of the project
 Outlining project aims, goals, and objectives

2. Achievements to date and major milestones for each objective

outlined above:
 Discuss the actions taken or activities implemented since the last
reporting period to meet the objectives;
 Discuss major achievements and milestones reached and reasons for
this success;
 Discuss important lessons learned since the last reporting period.

3. Problems, challenges encountered and methods for overcoming

them: for each objective:
 Discuss problems, and challenges encountered in achieving the
objectives or in carrying out the activities of the scope of work;

4. Plans for the next reporting period.

 Discuss major activities planned for the next reporting period;
 Discuss what you have done or will do to overcome the problems, and
challenges and why you think you will be successful, and
 Discuss the likelihood of meeting the project objectives and carrying
out project activities within the allotted time and budget.

Alternatively, you can use a memo format as below:

To : Programme Officer, Katanga Farm

From: The Executive Officer, Katanga Farm (Signature & Date stamp)
Date : 22nd October, 2017
Subject: Progress Report for September, 2017

58
Abstract: You should briefly state the most important issues such as the
context, goals, achievements, problems/challenges encountered and
methods for overcoming them.

1. Introduction. You should fully detail the background to the project.

 Background/History/Context of the project
 Outlining project aims, goals, and objectives

2. Achievements to date and major milestones for each objective

outlined above:
 Discuss the actions taken or activities implemented since the last
reporting period to meet the objectives;
 Discuss major achievements and milestones reached and reasons for
this success;
 Discuss important lessons learned since the last reporting period.

3. Problems, challenges encountered and methods for overcoming

them: for each objective:
 Discuss problems, and challenges encountered in achieving the
objectives or in carrying out the activities of the scope of work;

4. Plans for the next reporting period.

 Discuss major activities planned for the next reporting period;
 Discuss what you have done or will do to overcome the problems, and
challenges and why you think you will be successful, and
 Discuss the likelihood of meeting the project objectives and carrying
out project activities within the allotted time and budget.

Field Trip Reports

Field trip reports usually take the form of a memo and are relatively short (3
pages as maximum). Field trip reports are NOT an hour by hour narrative of

59
what happened, but are structured to highlight what was important and
necessary follow-up action.

A good report is like telling a good story. In a report you are telling the
reader what happened, why it happened and in a way that holds their
interest. Like any good story, you would also set the scene first, making the
reader aware of, for example, the history, background and overall context of
the report topic. The contents of any written report should be organised into
a well-structured form. Unless it is a short, e.g. one page, it will be usually be
necessary to divide the information contained into sections, each section
with its own sub-heading.

Here is the recommended format:

To :
From :
Date :
Subject :

1. Name (s) of traveller (s) and dates of travel:

2. Purpose of travel :
 List all the objectives of the field trip.
3. Accomplishments/Results
For each objective stated above:
 Discuss accomplishments and results;
 Describe constraints and problems encountered if any in achieving
objectives;
 Not what did not get accomplished and why?
4. Resource mobilization implications for the project;
5. Recommendations and Follow-ups; and
6. Appendices.

Include a travel itinerary here and list of contacts made.

60
 Summary
In this unit, you learned how to write good and effective written documents
such as: letters, CVs, memos, progress, and field reports.

Activity
i. Find a memo from your work or business, or borrow one from someone
you know. Share it with your course mates. Compare and contrast.
ii. Write an application letter. Select a position for which you are qualified
based on your work experience and skills and academic knowledge so
far acquired.
iii. Write brief report on an experiment you have performed recently in
your laboratory.
iv. What type of language do you use in reporting an experiment?

Readings
1. Bovee, C., and Thill, J. (2010). Business communication essentials: a
skills-based approach to vital business English (4th Ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
2. Lesikar, R. V., & John D. Pettit, Jr. (1998). Report Writing for Business:
(10th Ed.) Delhi: McGraw-Hill,
3. Morgan, D. (1998).10 Minute Guide to Job Interviews. New York:
Macmillan,
4. Thill, John V. & Courtland L. Bovée, Excellence in Business
Communication, 10th edition. Boston: Pearson, 2013.

UNIT
U ACADEMIC
NIT66::A WRITING
CADEMICW SKILLS
RITINGS KILLS 61
Introduction

In the previous unit, you learnt about written communication. In this unit,
you will learn about academic writing. Worldwide, students under distance
learning mode are expected to write volumes of assignments and research
reports. Despite the merit of this delivery mode, many students score very
low grades simply because they think it’s just a matter of writing. Worse still,
many students simply “cut and paste” any information they come across
without critical thinking. Furthermore, some use other people’s ideas without
acknowledgement. Thus, skills on how to systematically write assignments
and cite and write references in a scholarly work are required in academic
writing, hence the importance of this unit.

LearningOutcomes
Learning Outcomes
Uponcompletion
completionofofthis
thisunit,
unit,you
youshould
shouldbe
beable
ableto:
to:
Upon
Correctlywrite
writeassignments;
assignments;
Correctly
Definesome
someacademic
academicwriting
writingterms;
terms;and
and
Define
Correctlycite
citeand
andwrite
writereferences
referencesaccording
accordingto
toAPA
APAand
andHarvard
Harvard
Correctly
styles.
styles.

62
6.1 Assignment Writing

As a distance learner, the most common delivery method in which you will
be required to be submitting your academic work is through assignments. In
most courses, such assignments will be in essay form, hence, the need for
you to learn how essays of such nature are written.

6.1.1 Steps in essay or assignment writing

Writing an assignment of essay type is a long and winding process. What

follows are some guidelines on how you can go about essay writing.
However, some of the steps outlined below have general application even for
some examination questions. The following are practical steps you can apply
when writing any assignment in form of an essay:

[STUDY THE TITLE/TOPIC]

[NOTE THE LIMITS AND REQUIREMENTS]

[PLAN YOUR ESSAY OUTLINE]

[IDENTIFY READING SOURCES]

[WRITE YOUR DRAFT ESSAY]

[FINALLY WRITE ESSAY]

Step 1 - Studying the title: Mwansa and Moonga (2005) stated that ‘many
a time students have written essays after working very hard but have scored
low marks because they did not respond to the needs of the title. In other
words, they did not understand the topic or question.’ Therefore, whenever
you are given such assignments, it is important first to understand the
assignment title or question or you must be able to interpret an essay topic
63
accurately. In most cases, students waste time on long background or side
issues instead of directing their entire essay to answering the question.

It is suggested that you do the following to help you understand the

question:

 Identify the key instruction or command word (s) which tells you what
to do;
 Identify the topic: The general area of discussion;
 Identify the focus: The specific area of discussion; and
 Special conditions of the essay:

Key instruction or command words

One way of ensuring that you have carefully considered the question is to
interpret all the key instruction words. We refer to them as ‘instruction
words’ because they carry the instructions or command to be followed in the
assignment. Some examples are: Define, discuss, describe, justify etc.

Examples of such assignment or examination questions could be:

ASSIGNMENT ONE/OR QUESTION 1: 20 MARKS

Briefly discuss five factors affecting crop-water requirements.

Command Focus Topic

ASSIGNMENT TWO: 30 MARKS

Visit any agricultural extension organisation and find out what criteria
management or training personnel use to select farmers or staff to attend
workshops/seminars or any training activity.

64
  Length: 5-10 pages
 Due dates: 8th October, 2018 and 15th July, 2018 respectively.
The instruction word has been highlighted as “justify, visit and find out.”
Think of other examples from your special area of study, and identify
instructional words. Fortunately, the main instruction words are well known
across academic disciplines, and what they require you to do is clearly to
understand and interpret them. The taxonomy list of such words is given in
Table 1.4 below, and you are expected to familiarize yourself with it as well
as to apply it when writing assignments or exam questions.

Table 1.4: List of some instruction words and interpretations

Instruction Meaning
word
Account for Explain the reasons for; explain why something has happened.
Asses The answer weighs the pros and cons, say to what extent or
level.
Describe The answer should show how something relates, give an
account of, trace works, is done, or how something appears.
Enumerate, Organize facts in a sequence but be concise and brief, omitting
outline, minor detail, and classifying the material.
State Formally set out a position
Elaborate Answer fully with reasons and examples
Summarise Give the main points and facts briefly, leaving our details and
illustrations.
Analyse The answer should discuss the things closely, weigh for and
against – talk critically. Visit the various aspects of a concept
and approach it from various angles.
Discuss The answer should give a clear explanation of something,
give details. Give both sides of an argument and then your
own opinion
Distinguish Describe the difference between two things
between
Identify Point out and describe
List Provide an itemised series of points (often expressed
in point form)
Critically Write a critical appraisal on the subject. Include the following:
discuss, pros and cons, advantages and disadvantages, strengths and
weaknesses.
Explain Give reasons to support the ideas.

Define To give the precise and exact meaning of a word, Provide

clear, concise, authoritative meanings.
65
Evaluate Carefully appraise the issue at hand, citing both advantages and
limitations. Emphasise views of authorities and personal judgment
based on the facts presented.
Justify You are required to give only the reasons for a position or
argument. The position may either be negative or positive.
Write a critical appraisal to support a given viewpoint.
Prove Establish that something is true by citing factual evidence or
giving clear and logical reasons.
Identify The answer requires you to isolate and discuss, out of many
factors available.
Illustrate Use specific examples, figures or diagrams to explain,
demonstrate or clarify a problem, situation or view.
Compare Look for characteristics that resemble each other. Requires an
answer that sets items side by side and shows their
similarities.
Contrast, Stress the differences between items in the question
Distinguish
State This requires you to give an answer which expresses the
relevant points briefly and clearly without lengthy discussion
or minor details.
Trace This requires you to give a brief description of something in
logical or chronological order of the stages.

The Topic-the specific area of discussion, in this case, is ‘crop-water

requirement.’

The Focus - the general area of discussion. In the essay question cited
above, the general content area covered by the question is five factors
affecting.

Special conditions

It is important that you take note of any special conditions that have been imposed
on the question. The following words normally guide you in the determination of
special conditions:
 ‘With special reference to…’;
 ‘Using at least two examples…’;
 ‘Using practical examples…’ or

66
  With reference to any post-colonial policies on business management…’

Referring to the second assignment above, special condition is: ‘Visit any
agricultural extension organisation.’

Step 2 - Note the Limits and Requirements of the assignment: After

you have understood and correctly interpreted the question or topic, it is
prudent to take note of the length and the due date. The significance of the
length of the assignment will assist you to decide the amount of information
to put in, while the due date will give you the specific time you should do the
work and hand in. Make sure that you do not submit your work later than the
due date as doing so, may either attract a zero or deducted marks penalty
from the marker/examiner. In the above assignments, length and due dates
are 5-10 pages and 8th April, 2018 and 15th July, 2018 respectively.

Step 3 – Plan your Assignment Outline: You should make sure that after
knowing the limits and due dates of the assignment, it is now important for
you to plan or draft an outline. An outline is a guideline or direction or
strategies on how you are going to approach your assignment. Remember
that this is just a tentative guideline and is subject to changes. In short, the
main reason for an outline is to assist you with the type of information to
look for.

Remember, they should be five factors! Some of the answers to assignment

1 could be:

 Soil type
 Wind
 Temperature
 Slope/gradient
67
  Crop stage

Step 4 – Identify the reading sources: At this time, try by all means to
collect all relevant data for your assignment. The type of reading sources
required will be determined by the nature and scope of the topic or focus.
For example, if the topic is all about the ‘crop-water requirement’, there’s
need for you to collect data about that area. Never collect data that was
written some years back which have been overtaken by current events,
unless tackling a historical topic. As you come across the right material, take
note of the source and statements or information as not doing so, may result
in forgetting the information.

Step 5 – Write your draft assignment: At this stage, ensure that you
write at least two or three drafts. Doing so, will help you addressing the
following:
 Look over your assignment to make sure that you have answered the
question.
 Check for errors (punctuation, spelling, and grammar), bad sentence
structure, jargon, slang etc.
 Is your presentation OK? Can it be improved?
 Is the referencing or citations correct?

You may have to revise your assignment several times before it effectively
addresses the topic and question.

Step 6 – Finally write the assignment: At this stage, the topic is well
established in your mind and all the points you have raised have become
part of your own language. Write at least two drafts before you come up with
the final draft. You can now write your assignment in your own vocabulary.
Lastly, always proof-read your work or you can give it to someone to peer

68
review it. As you do this, avoid giving your work to your course mates, as
doing so, may end in plagiarising your effort.

6.1.2 Essay Structure

Every assignment question comprises four major sections or parts and has to
be presented in the following order: Introduction, main body and
summary/conclusion and references.

Introduction
Essay assignments commonly start with an introduction. The introduction
normally introduces the topic to be discussed. Introduction tells the reader
where you will be going, so mention what you will be discussing in the essay.
Although the introduction is the starting point of your essay, it is easiest to
write after you have completed the main body of your assignment. The
reason for this is that by then you will have a better overall feel for which
sources are important, what your key themes are, and the order in which you
will address them. This should save you some time.

The Main Body

The next stage is to write the assignment. This is the longest and most
important part of your assignment. It is commonly divided into paragraphs or
sub-topics, comprising different ideas or perspectives. These paragraphs
should be of reasonable length. In our example above, discuss these sub-
topics in details not just few sentences. However, you are free to bring in
your ideas as an expert and support them with other people’s ideas by citing
and quoting.

Summary/Conclusion

69
You should make sure that the assignment is summarized or concluded. A
summary involves isolating all the major points raised in a given assignment
whereas a conclusion contains your final words. It tells the reader what you
as a writer on a given topic think about the topic, the problems raised and
the solutions given.

References
Any information that you may have read about the task and cited must be
included in this section. In case you gathered some ideas from others but
you did not cite, acknowledge by bibliographing.

Information required on the Cover page of assignment

On the cover page of your assignment, the following information is
necessary:

The institution’s name: For example Natural Resources

Development College
Department: Agricultural Engineering (If the assignment is from this
Dept.)
Course name/code: AE 141
Lecturer/instructor’s name: Dr. B. Bwalya
Student number: D/F/17/12
Due date and number of pages: 8th April, 2018; 5 - 10 pages
Assignment topic: Discuss five factors affecting crop-water
requirements. Discuss.

6.2 Academic Writing

This topic is specifically designed for you as a College student about to write
your assignments, research, project or teaching practice experience. It has
been prepared to equip you with knowledge and hands - on skills on how to
cite, quote and do references in research and project reports.
70
For many people think writing research or project reports is a simpler work.
However, writing research and project reports is a demanding and exciting
endeavour, which does not require one just to present the content, but
providing evidence of the source of information from other scholars. One of
the primary features of academic writing is using the literature to support
your ideas. This requires you to read widely in order to seek out the different
sides of a debate within a particular field of inquiry.

This initiative is done as a result of seeing many students struggling with

citations and references.

6.2.1 Information Source Acknowledgement

Bowker (2007) stated that ‘the sources of information you can document in
college assignments are typically those from an authority.’ In an academic
setting, an authority is usually someone who has been the author of
published material. This material may come in the forms of:

 Books
 Journals
 Published reports
 Newspapers
 Thesis
 Dissertations etc.

Adequate acknowledging the information you use in your assignments or

research reports is an important part of all academic work. Failure to
acknowledge a source of information, or using other people’s ideas as your
own is called plagiarism, and is a serious form of academic dishonesty and
if such a person is discovered, s/he can be penalised as per college policy.

71
What is Citing or Quoting?
To “cite” is the way you tell your readers that certain material in your work
came from another source. This technique of referring to authors in your
writing is often termed citing. Once you cite in the main body, a full
reference is expected at the end of the piece of work i.e. reference whereas,
quoting is the mentioning of the points of view brought out by someone and
has to be in quotation marks. A quotation is an exact copy of the words that
someone else has written or said. These words are placed within quotation
marks “. . . . . ”

What is a Reference?
A Reference is an acknowledgement that you have used the ideas and
written material belonging to other authors in your own work. It is a method
used to demonstrate to your readers that you have conducted a thorough
and appropriate literature search, and reading.

How does one cite sources?

There are a number of ways in which you can acknowledge the source. The
way the reference or citation is written depends on the source of the work
and the referencing style being used. Within academia, different disciplines
or learning institutions have their own ways of citing. Some of the most
common examples of writing styles include:

 The Harvard system which uses the author/year system,

 The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) which uses footnotes;
 The Modern Language Association (MLA) which uses the
author/year/page;
 The American Psychological Association (APA) which uses the
author/year conventions.

72
However, citing in this module is based on the Harvard and the American
Psychological Association (APA) referencing style. The reason is simple:
these styles are widely accepted in many commonwealth universities and
colleges. Among other mandates of these styles regulates:

 In-text or within citation

 Writing references

In-text citation

When writing citations, you should make use of the author-date method of
in-text citation. In this method, the author's last name (surname) and the
year of the source material's publication enclosed in parentheses should
appear at the beginning of the sentence/in the text or at the end of the
sentence. It is inserted directly after the information being sourced from the
scientific literature.

Citing at the beginning of a sentence: less than 40 words

If you want to acknowledge a quotation at the beginning of a sentence only
the year of publication is enclosed in parentheses immediately after the
source or author you cite as follows:

Banda (2002) stated that “surface irrigation system is mostly used by small-
scale farmers in Third World countries.” p.5.

OR

According to Banda (2002) “surface irrigation system is mostly used by

small-scale farmers in Third World countries.”

Citing at the end of a sentence (s): more than 40 words

73
If you want to cite by showing the sources at the end of the text, you
indicate the author followed by a comma, the year of publication, a full colon,
at times, the pages on which the quotation is found. You can only make this
type of citation if the sentences are more than five.

Surface irrigation though not advocated in the developing countries

plays a pivotal role in as far as food production is concerned. It is
therefore, imperative to promote it in the developing countries as well
since it is a sustainable irrigation method. Sustainable irrigation
methods have to be carefully disseminated to small-scale farmers
because of their alleged complexity. (Fraser, 2006:5).

If you quote by showing sources and you do not want to include all the words
or sentences, you can write it this way:

In the Northern Province of Zambia, many small-scale farmers practice

shifting cultivation in the miombo woodlands. Though farmers are able to an
average of three successive crops under this practice, soil fertility and crop
yields decline after the third year. . . . Studies have shown that the
chitemene system can be sustained as long as the population density does
not exceed seven persons per square kilometre. However, farmers . . . are no
longer able to wait for up to 25 years (Siame, 2006: 14).

In the fourth sentence, the four dots indicate that there are some words that
are missing at the end of a sentence and can only be accessed in the original
source. On the other hand, in the sixth sentence, there are three dots in
between, indicating there are few words missing within the sentence.

If the statement you want to quote is 40 or more words, use a block quote
format or indentation as follows:

Rossett (1995) pointed out that:

74
 The examination of extant data is a wonderful needs assessment tool
because it is inexpensive. This tool takes the instructional technologist
across the organization in search of the natural outcomes of effective
and ineffective performance. It involves asking colleagues for the data
that automatically flow from their work. The only challenge is to
convince colleagues that they ought to release that information to you
(pp. 192-193).

REMEMBER: Use ‘p’ to indicate a single page number and ‘pp’ to indicate
multiple page numbers.

Citing a work with 2 authors

The following shows how two authors are cited:

According to Chanda and Banda (2011), “climate change has been

practiced . . . .” (p. 2).

Citing a work with 3 to 5 authors

The following is the way to quote from work by three or more authors in the
text. When citing a work with three to five authors for the first time, identify
all authors in the signal phrase or in parenthesis:
Mulenga, Liywalii, and Mutesa (1999) stated that “. . . .”

In subsequent citations, only use the first author's last name followed by "et
al.," meaning and many more in the signal phrase or in parentheses:
Mulenga et al., (1999) argued that “. . . .”
Citing a work with 6 and more authors
When citing a work with six and more authors, identify the first author’s
name followed by “et al.”
Smith et al., (2006) maintained that “. . . .”

Citing organizations
75
When citing an organization, mention the organization the first time when
you cite the source in the signal phrase or the parenthetical citation:

The data collected by the Food and Drug Administration (2012) confirmed
that “.
. . .”

If the organization has a well-known abbreviation, include the abbreviation in

brackets the first time the source is cited and then use only the abbreviation
in later citations:

Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2012) confirmed that “. . . 12 people

consumed poisonous mushrooms . . . .”

Citing authors with same last names

When citing authors with the same last names, use first initials with the last
names:
(B. Mulenga; 2005 and F. Mulenga, 2008)

When citing two or more works by the same author published in the same
year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c) with the year of publication to order the
references:

Mulenga’s (1998 a) study of adolescent immigrants revealed that

“. . . .”

Personal communication
When citing interviews, letters, e-mails, etc., include the communicator’s
name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date of the

76
communication. However, do not include personal communication in the
reference list:

B. Mulenga also claimed that many of his students had difficulties with APA
style.
(Personal communication, November 3, 2002).

Writing References/Bibliography
Reference writing is an important part for all academic work. Thus, the work
you are going to do apply to all aspects of your work in other subjects such
as: research, projects, assignments, and other field tasks. A word of caution:
do not treat this unit as in isolation from what you are doing or will be doing
elsewhere in other subjects.

Guidelines on how references are written

Different journal writers and publishers provide guidelines as to how
references or bibliography should be presented. There are some variations in
the way citations are written. Please, note that the following references do
not reflect the real source. These references are given as examples only.

PERIODICALS
A periodical is a publication that comes out at a particular or specified time.
Journals, newspapers, monographs, and magazines are some of the
examples. The way these periodicals are cited varies on the basis of a
number of authors that have written them. Below are some of the variations
in writing:

JOURNALS
1. Written by one author:

77
 Banda, G. (2002). Agriculture extension: Its challenges in the 21 st century.
Agricultural Review 9, 257-260.

You may notice that the first element is the surname of the author,
followed by a comma, initial, full stop, year published (in parentheses),
full stop, the title of the article and sub-title, a full stop, the title of the
journal in which the article is appearing, full stop the volume number,
comma, and page numbers of the journal on which the article appeared.
Capitalise the first letters of the nouns, other words such as conjunctions,
prepositions, unless they appear at the beginning, are not capitalized. The
title of the journal and the volume number should be bold, italicised or
underlined.

2. Written by two authors:

Banda, G., and Jani, H.M. (1998). The impact of communication on the
learning process. International Review of Education. 31 (2), 205-212.

Note that everything remains the same except where there are two
authors; a comma is used to separate the first author’s name from the
second author. The other variation is that the volume number e.g. 31, is
followed by an issue number that is enclosed in parentheses. This
element indicates that sometimes a journal may not have both volume
and an issue number. The underlined or bold number will always be the
volume number and the number in parentheses will always designate an
issue number.

3. Written by more than two authors:

Banda, G., Jani, H.M., Mubita, K., Hamusankwa, H., and Felix.(2001). The
Agro forestry study in Chief Shakumbila’s Kingdom. Research Journal
of Zambia. 25 (5), 23.

78
Most of the elements remain the same except that the number of authors
increases. Note that the number of this entry will apply to any journal article
with any number of authors that are more than two.

MAGAZINES

Gardner, H. (1981, Dec.5). Do Babies sing a song? Psychology Today. p.4.

The year, the month or date of publication, are shown. In this journal, the
volume and the issue numbers are not indicated while all other elements are
the same but a single p.means page while double pp. means pages.

Newspaper article (no author)

Study finds free care used more. (1982, Jan. 22). APA Monitor, p.14.

You have to capitalize the first letter of the title of the article and underline
or italicize the title of the newspaper and show the page number.

Newspaper article (with author)

Mulenga, J. C. (1987, Dec. 7). The effect of GMO’s on the environment. Times
of Zambia. p.8.

TEXBOOKS

Written by one author:

Mtopa, A.M. (1989). Land Surveys in Mongu. Lusaka: Kenneth Kaunda
Foundation.

79
All the elements up to the year of publication remain the same as seen in the
Journal. The changes are that the third element is the title of the book in
which the first letter of the first word is capitalized and all first letters in
nouns are capitalized. The next element is the town where the book was
published followed by a full colon, the name of the publisher and a full stop
Furthermore, where the book was written by more than one author, what is
obtaining in the journals applies here.

Written by two authors:

Kelly,M.J., and Achola, P.P.P.(1986) . The Provision of Education for All:
Towards Implementation of Educational Reforms. Lusaka: School of
Education, University of Zambia.

Written by more than two authors:

Kelly, M.J., Achola, P.P.W., Kaluba, L.H., Nilson,K., and Kamanga, T. (2006).
Agriculture at Crossroads: A Case Study in Zambia. Lusaka:
Macmillan.p.45.

Note that all authors are separated by commas and all other elements
remain the same.

Editioned Book
Banda, G., and Mubita, K. (2000). Agriculture in Zambia: Its challenges (3rd
Ed.). New York: Macmillan.

All the elements remain the same except two. The first is that after the title
of the book, you enclose edition in parentheses. Note that the edition
number is neither underlined nor bold.

An Edited Book

80
Bown, L., and Tomori, S.H.D. (Eds.). (1979). A Handbook of Adult Education in
West Africa. New York: Hutchinson.

The additional element is (Eds.), which comes immediately after the second
author. The initials (Eds.) stand for editors and if there is only one editor,
could be indicated as (Ed.).

Chapter in an edited book:

Ampene, K.E. (1979). Teaching Adults. In L. Bown, and S.H.D. Tomori (Eds.),
A Handbook of Adult Education in West Africa. New York: Hutchingson.
All other elements remain the same except that the title of the chapter in the
book, is followed by the names of the editors, each starting with initials and
separated from each other by a comma. The comma at the second author is
followed by the title of the book.

Dissertations/Theses
When referencing a theses or dissertations, use the same method as a book
reference but include the level of the award (e.g. B.A., BSc., M.Sc.) and the
name of the awarding institution.

Mwangala, L. (2012). A study of the development hypogeal in soybean

production on sodic soils in Rufunsa District (Unpublished Doctoral
dissertation). Northern Michigan University, Marquette, MI.

Sometimes you may wish to use material from lectures, discussions,

interviews, or modules to supplement your assignments. Use the following
conventions to ensure that your referencing is correct.

Conference Papers

81
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MACO). (2009). “Fertiliser Input
Supply Programme: report of the FISP National Conference on the
impact.” Paper presented at the annual conference, 6-12 September,
2010. Mansa: MACO. pp. 12-13.

82
Lectures and modules: Unpublished, verbal sources such as interviews
and lectures are not reproduced in the reference list. However, you must put
any published course materials that you have used in the reference list using
the conventions below. Unpublished, verbal sources such as interviews and
lectures are not reproduced in the reference list. However, you must put any
published course materials that you have used in the reference list using the
conventions below.

83
Sondo, C. (2012). ED 111 Module: Communication Skills. Department of
Agriculture Education and Extension. Lusaka: NRDC.

OR, if the author is unknown

Department of Crop Science. (2011). CS 345 Lecture: Crop protection,

Lusaka: NRDC.

Electronic Reference Writing

Basically, the format is as follows: Author, date of publication, title of article,

title of the source, volume, issue, page numbers, retrieved (date) or DOI,
from (database).

Article with a Doi

Muller, V. (1994). Hydraulics: Transmission. The Australian Engineering

Journal, 3 (2), 103-107. DOI: 10:1002/piq.20033.

NOTE: Use the article’s DOI (Digital Object Identifier), the unique code given
by the publisher to a specific article.

Article without a Doi

Atkinson, R. C., and Shiffrin, R. M. (1979). The control of short-term memory.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 26(2), 80-89.

Note: The name and volume of the journal should be italicized, and there
should be a comma between the journal name and volume number. Note
that the issue number is NOT italicized (the (2) in the example), and that
there is not a space between the volume number and the issue number. Also
note that only the first word of the title is capitalized; all other words begin
84
with lower case letters (unless it’s the first word after a colon or a proper
noun).

Kernohan, L. (2008). Access opportunities and issues for students with

disabilities at one Ontario college. College Quarterly, 11(2). Retrieved
from http://www.senecac.on.ca/quarterly/2008-vol11-
num-spring/kernohan.htm

Creating Your References List

After you have completed writing your research or thesis, create a list of
references that contains the sources that you have cited in the body of your
paper at the end of your document under the heading “References”. Any
other information that you may have read about the problem but did not
mention in the paper is not included in this section but under Bibliography
section.

Here are some general rules to follow when writing your reference list:
1. Start the reference section on a new page.
2. The word “References” should be centered at the top of the page in
boldface, but should not be underlined or capitalized.
3. List citations alphabetically by the author’s surname. If you have more
than one citation for the same author, order them from oldest to most
recent.
4. If you have more than one citation from the same author for the same
year, arrange them alphabetically. In general, order the reference list
alphabetically by authors’ surnames, but follow these guidelines for
special cases:
a. Same author(s), different years: order by year of publication,
earliest to latest.
Alibandila, M. W. (1999). How cassava is processed . . . .
Alibandila, M. W. (2005). Mechanisms of soil cation
exchange . . . .
85
 b. Same author(s), same year: order alphabetically by first word of
the title (excluding a, an, or the), and add a lowercase a, b, etc.,
to the year.
Bwali, M. D., & Chitundu, K. V. (2000a). Better nutritional health
care. . . .
Bwali, M. D., & Chitundu, K. V. (2000b). Expanded school mental
health programs. . . .
c. Same initial name(s) in multiple-author entries: alphabetize
according to the first surname that differs.
Hatimbula, G. F., Malembeka, B., Banda, L., Bentley, A., & Moola,
J. (1995)
Hatimbula, G. F., Malembeka, B., Banda, L., Bentley, V., & Moola,
J. (1993).
5. References shall neither be numbered nor bulleted.
6. The main title of each source should be in italics. You may underline or
use bold instead of italics, but you must choose one method of
emphasis and stick to it consistently

On the next page, are examples of various types of citations in this module,
separated into five categories: Books, Periodicals and others.

86
 SAMPLE OF CITATIONS AND REFERENCE LISTS

Beef production is unique in that animals are kept in an extensive

environment with minimal environmental modifications, unlike what is seen
in dairy, swine and poultry production. Thus, beef cattle are reared in
environments that differ greatly in temperature, humidity and wind speed,
which have forced cattle to be regionally adapted, thus creating sensitivity to
environments that differ greatly from the adapted environment. This
potentially decreases their production efficiency in un-adapted environments
and usefulness across multiple regions or in international breeding programs
(Hahn, 2007; Young, 2011; Mulenga, 2008). Scharf, Broner, Alfred and David
(2010) stated that “consequently there has existed a long-term pursuit to
develop breeds of cattle that can tolerate extremes in both directions while
maintaining a high level of productivity and possessing superior carcass
attributes (pp 12-15).

According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2010), “suboptimal

body temperature regulation during periods of extreme temperature events
has deleterious effects on growth, feed efficiency, reproduction, and animal
welfare.” Currently breeders mitigate the risks associated with heat or cold
stress by using knowledge of breed strengths relative to heat or cold
tolerance but direct selection of animals within breeds is currently not
possible (Scharf et al., 2010:13; Mwangala, 2012; Sondo, 2012).

87
Finch (2005b) and FAO (2010) stated that “temperature gradient between
the outer extremities and environment are influenced by the rate of air flow
across the skin and physical properties of the animal coat.” They found
evidence of a major gene affecting … hair length in two South American heat
tolerant Bos Taurus breeds, Senepol and Tuli…. The gene referred to as
“slick hair”, produces a very short and sleek coat which allows for increased
heat loss. It has been shown that Bos taurus animals with darker hair coats
have a warmer internal body temperature and body surface temperature
than their light colored counterparts (Finch, 2005b; FAO, 2010).

References
Hahn, G. L. (2007). Dynamic responses of beef cattle to thermal heat loads.
Journal
of Animal Science. 77: 29-30.

Finch, V. A. (2005b). Comparison of non-evaporative heat transfer in

different cattle
breeds. Lusaka: University Press.

FAO (2010). Improvement of Livestock Production in cold Climates. Retrieved

March

4, 2013 from http://www.senecac.on.ca/quarterly/2008- vol11- num-

spring/kernohan.htm

Mulenga, J. C. (2008, Dec. 7). The effect of temperature on beef production.

Times

of Zambia. p.8.

Mwangala, L. (2012). A study of heat implication on beef animals in Zambia.

(Unpublished Diploma research project). Natural Resources
Development
College, Department of crop Sciences.

88
Young, B. A. (2011). Cold stress as it affects animal production. (2 nd Ed.).
Kitwe:
Makeni publishers.

Scharf, B., Broner, J.A., Alfred, D.G., and David, D.E. (Eds.). (2010). Evaluation
of
physiological and blood serum differences in heat-tolerant
(Romosinuano) and
heat-susceptible (Angus) Bos Taurus cattle.

Sondo, C. (2012). ED 111 Module: Communication Skills. Department of

Agriculture

Education and Extension. Lusaka: NRDC.

EXERCISE
EXERCISE
a) From the given list of references identify the Books and Articles.
a) From the given list of references identify the Books and Articles.
b) Spot the Referencing Mistakes and correct them.
b) Spot the Referencing Mistakes and correct them.
Unit1)summary
Health Promotions Unit (2003) ‘Obesity’ [online], available:
1) Health Promotions Unit (2003) ‘Obesity’ [online], available:
http://www.heathpromotions.ie/topics/obesity/
Thehttp://www.heathpromotions.ie/topics/obesity/
foregoing discussion focused on presentation accessed 16 May 2005.
of assignments, especially
accessed 16 May 2005.
the 2)
essay type. The
Buckroyd, mostEating
J. (1996) important starting
your heart out:point is correct interpretation
understanding and of
2) Buckroyd, J. (1996) Eating your heart out: understanding and
overcoming eating disorders, 2nd Ed, London: Vermilion.
theovercoming
topic as a eating
whole.disorders,
This is followed by interpretation
2nd Ed, London: Vermilion. of key words, which
you 3)
should possibly
Zulu, M. (1999)underline.
The impactThereafter
of Foreign you should on
Franchising decide on the context
the indigenous
3) Zulu, M. (1999) The impact of Foreign Franchising on the indigenous
Brands, Zambia Business Journal, Vol2 (5), pp. 45-50.
Brands,
of the topicZambia
and theBusiness
special Journal, Vol2of(5),
conditions thepp. 45-50. before responding. It is
question
4) Meru,
essential M., A. (2013)
that ‘Theessay
Zambian Economic Outlook 2015-2020’
4) Meru, M., you plan ‘The
A. (2013) the to determine
Zambian what you
Economic Outlook will include in the
2015-2020’
[online], available: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/zambia
[online], available:
introduction, http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/zambia
theDecember
body, and2013.
the conclusion.
accessed 12
accessed 12 December 2013.
5) Kansankha, S. (2013) HRC condemns cruel, inhuman and degrading
5) Kansankha,
In this unit, you S. (2013)
also learntHRC
how condemns cruel, inhuman and degrading
treatment and punishment of to cite from
inmates literature
at Isoka source
prison, ‘Humanand finally, how
Rights
treatment and punishment of inmates at Isoka prison, ‘Human Rights
Commission’,
references available:
are available: http//www.hrc.org.zm/hrc_condems_cruel
written. http//www.hrc.org.zm/hrc_condems_cruel
Therefore, since you are now through with
Commission’,
%2C_human_and_100126.php [accessed 24/12/13].
%2C_human_and_100126.php [accessed 24/12/13].
communication and study skills, you are expected to be a very good
6) Professor Lungu, J. (2010) ‘Basic Principles of Microeconomics’, Ndola,
6) Professor Lungu, J. (2010) ‘Basic Principles of Microeconomics’, Ndola,
communicator.
Mission Press.
Mission Press.
7) Shikaputo, A., M (1999) ‘Cash Management among Zambian SMEs in
7) Shikaputo, A., M (1999) ‘Cash Management among Zambian SMEs in
the transport and Logistics Industry’, ZICA Quarterly, pp. 11- 19.
the transport and Logistics Industry’, ZICA Quarterly, pp. 11- 19.
8) Professor Tembo, J. (2009) Introduction to Marketing Communication: A
8) Professor Tembo, J. (2009) Introduction to Marketing Communication: A
handbook for Zambian Marketers, Ndola: Times Printpack.
handbook for Zambian Marketers, Ndola: Times Printpack.

89
Readings
American Psychological Association. (1992). Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association. (6th Ed.). American Psychological
Association. Washington, D.C, Author.

Butler, L 2007, Fundamentals of academic writing, Pearson Education, White

Plains, New York.

Clanchy, J & Ballard, B 1997, Essay writing for students, Longman, Cheshire,
Melbourne.

90
MunLing, S 2010, Essay writing: a student’s guide, Sage, London.

Mwansa, D.M., and Moonga, A.L. (2005). Module EDG1: Study and
communication skills. Zambian Open University, School of Education.

Tembo, V.M. (2001). The writing of college and undergraduate assignments

in the social sciences. (Unpublished)

Theodore, T. (1993). College Study Skills.

Shields, ML 2010, Essay writing: a student’s guide, Sage, London.

Lipson, C 2008, Doing honest work in college: how to prepare citations, avoid
plagiarism and achieve real academic success, University of Chicago
Press, Chicago.

Pecorari, D 2008, Academic writing and plagiarism: a linguistic analysis,

Continuum, London.

University of Adelaide 2013, Academic Honesty Policy, viewed 26 Nov 2013,

http://www.adelaide.edu.au/policies/230/

Writing Centre 2011, Avoiding plagiarism, University of Adelaide, viewed 2

Oct 2012, http://www.adelaide.edu.au/writingcentre/learning_guides/>

91