Flow and

Mindfulness

Block IV

APPLICATIONS OF POSITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY

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206
UNIT 12 STRESS MANAGEMENT AND POST
TRAUMATIC GROWTH*
Structure
12.1 Learning Objectives
12.2 Introduction
12.3 Concept of Stress
12.4 Strategies/Techniques for Management of Stress
12.4.1 Strategies Focusing on Physical Aspect and Breathing

12.4.2 Strategies Focusing on Cognitive Processes

12.4.3 Strategies Focusing on Affective Processes

12.4.4 Strategies Focusing on Behaviour

12.4.5 Stress Management Strategies at the Organizational Level

12.5 Post-traumatic Growth

12.6 Let Us Sum Up
12.7 Key Words
12.8 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
12.9 Unit End Questions
12.10 References
12.11 Suggested Readings

12.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you would be able to:
• Explain the nature and types of stress;
• Describe the various strategies/techniques of managing stress; and
• Explain post-traumatic growth.

12.2 INTRODUCTION
You may be a young adult pursuing this course. You might be thinking of
which career to pursue after completion of the graduation degree. Or which
further programme to pursue? You might be feeling stressed about your higher
education and career; at the same time you might be forming relationship with
opposite sex and exploring romantic relationship. You might also be an adult
already in job and/or with family; or you might be an older person who has
taken up this programme out of interest or to add to your knowledge. Whatever
age and stage of life you may be in, you must be facing stress due to various
reasons related to that particular stage. Adolescents experience stress related
207
*Dr. Santa Misra, Professor of Psychology, Sri Sri University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Applications of to the physical and psychological changes; adults face stress related to their
Positive Psychology job, family responsibilities, raising children, taking care of the older family
members; whereas the older people are stressed about their health, finance, and
family and social support. Further, stress is also experienced by typical groups
of population such as children, women, people with disabilities, transgenders,
people with HIV/AIDS, chronic illness and so on. The underlying point here
is that no stage of life and no group of people are without stress. Stress is an
integral part of life even though each one of us invariably wants that their needs
and desires get fulfilled and they achieve happiness in life.
Think of it, if there were no stress, life will be simple, but may feel boring and
lack creativity also. Stress in fact pushes us to perform to the best of our ability
and stimulates our problem solving and critical thinking. An optimum amount
of stress motivates us and enhances our performance. However, when stress
goes beyond this optimum level, which may vary from person to person, it
results in stressful experience. Various personal and environmental factors may
act as barriers to reach our goals and place adjustive demands on us leading
to the experience of stress. The term ‘stress’ has typically been used to refer
both to the adjustive demand placed on an organism and to the organism’s
internal biological responses to such demands. All situations, whether positive
or negative, require adjustment, and may lead to stress.
Stress is often termed as a Twentieth Century Syndrome, born out of man’s race
towards modern progress and its ensuing complexities.
- Benjamin Franklin

12.3 CONCEPT OF STRESS

The concept of ‘stress’ was first introduced by Hans Selye in 1936. It is derived
from the Latin word “stringere” which means ‘to tighten’, denoting force, strain,
or strong efforts and pressure with reference to an object or person. According
to Beck (1967), stress refers to any force which physically or psychologically
strains the coping mechanism of an organism. Stress is defined as “nonspecific
response of the body to any demand (Selye, 1956). Hans Selye who is known
as the ‘father of stress research’, states that when we do not get any specific
response to the stimulus that creates tension in our body and mind, it is called
as stress.
Stress can be of two types – positive stress and negative stress. Positive stress
is good stress or eustress (Truxillo et al. (2015), e.g., stress arising out of job
promotion, getting married or moving to a new city; whereas negative stress is
known as distress (Schafer (1998, p. 8), e.g., stress resulting from a cyclone
which damaged your house or suffering from a severe illness. Stresses can
also be categorized as acute and chronic stress. Acute stress can occur after a
very stressful life event, e.g., death or accident of a loved one, disaster, failure/
setback to reach a cherished goal, trauma, job loss etc. Here the stressor is
sudden; and the symptoms are acute, but do not last long. It is also called as
short-term stress. Acute stress generally results in diabetes, headache, rapid
heart palpitation, acidity, muscle tension, body pain etc. Chronic stress, on
the other hand, involves long-lasting symptoms, for instance, stress due to bad
208 marriages, chronic illness, successive failures in life, and extremely taxing job/
negative work environment. Such stress is long-term and is very harmful for Stress Management
health. and Post Traumatic
Growth
The sources of stress are considered as causes of stress that can include frustration,
conflict of motives, pressures, life events, fear, resistance, resentment, daily
hassles, interpersonal relationships, arising out of biological, psychological,
and socio-cultural factors. Generally the factors that cause stress are known
as stressors. These are the factors that challenge the adaptive capacity of the
individual. Thus stressors threaten to disrupt the organism’s optimal functioning
and the stress response is the cascade of biological processes necessary to return
the system to homeostasis (Sapolsky, 1992).
The factors influencing the severity of stresses are the nature of the stressor,
the individual’s stress tolerant behavior (relating to both physical and mental
capacity), environmental factors and social support. Whatever may be the
reason, the reactions and responses to those stresses are important that can
lead to maladjustment and maladaptive coping behavior causing stresses to the
individual.
The impact of a stressor depends on its importance, duration, cumulative effects,
multiplicity, and imminence. Stressors that involve important aspects of an
individual’s life can be highly stressful. Further, prolonged exhaustion imposes
a more intense stress than does temporary fatigue. For instance, even if there are
frequent arguments between the couple, they carry on with the relationship until
one day when it breaks in the face of the “last straw”, that is, the precipitating
stressor. A number of stressor at the same time also has a greater impact, e.g., if
the person gets fired from his job, faces a divorce case, has a heart attack, – all
at the same time – the resulting stress will be more severe as compared to facing
a single stressor. Finally in most difficult situations including those involving
conflict, the severity of stress increases as the need to deal with the demand
increases.
Stressors are broadly categorized into four types such as, physical or
physiological, psychological, environmental, and socio - cultural.
• Physical stressors include such stimuli as injury, infection,
immobilization, malnutrition, inadequate living space etc.
• Psychological stressors include such stimuli as threats to self esteem,
failure in an intellectual task, interaction with a hostile person, frustration,
conflicts, poor health, poor financial conditions, life crisis and so on.
• Environmental stressors include such stimuli as crowding, loud noise,
extreme temperature, air pollution, sensory deprivation, environmental
overload or under load, etc.
• Socio-cultural stressors include such stimuli as social isolation, cultural
deprivation, social disadvantages, poor socio-economic status, disturbed
family, undesired socio-cultural activities, low social status, and so on.
General Adaptation Syndrome Model of Stress
Hans Selye, the recognized father of stress research talks about General
Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) to explain the process of stress reaction. 209
Applications of The GAS has three stages: Alarm, Resistance, and Exhaustion. In the alarm
Positive Psychology stage, the external stimulus/ stressor activates the internal stress system of the
body. There are a number of physiological and chemical reactions, such as
increased pituitary and adrenaline secretions; noticeable increases in respiration,
heart rate, and blood pressure; and a heightening of the senses. If the stressor
continues, then the GAS moves into the resistance stage, during which the body
calls upon the needed organ or system to deal with the stresses. However, while
there may be a great deal of resistance to one stressor during the second stage,
there may be little, if any, resistance to, unrelated stressors. This helps explain
why a person going through an emotional string may be particularly vulnerable
to other illness or disease. Finally, if the stressors persist over a longer period
of time, the reserves of the adaptive mechanisms during the second stage may
become drained and exhaustion sets in.

Fig. 15.1: Three Stages of General Adaptation Syndrome

Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com}medicine-and-dentistry

Besides the physiologically oriented approach to stress represented by the classic

GAS model which remains a vital dimension of modern stress research and
stress management, attention is also being given to the psychological (e.g., mood
changes, negative emotions, and feeling of helplessness), and the behavioral
(e.g., directly confronting the stressor or attempting to obtain information
about the stressor) dimensions of stress. All three dimensions (physiological,
psychological and behavioral) are important in the understanding of stress and
coping strategies to manage stress.
Diathesis-Stress Model
This model of stress (Rubinstein, 1986) explains the occurrence of stress as
the outcome of a dynamic interaction between the hereditary factors and the
environmental factors. Thus there is a biological predisposition, for instance for
getting high blood pressure or blood sugar, which makes the person vulnerable.
However, the manifestation of this will depend on the environmental factors
or the stressors in the life of the person. Similarly, the person may be prone to
getting irritable/anxious, but this will interact with the environmental stressors
for the person, that will act as the precipitating factors, to actually get anxious.
Hence this is also known as the vulnerability-stress model.
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 Stress Management
and Post Traumatic
Growth

Fig. 12.2: Diathesis-Stress Model

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:B_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93%D7%9C.jpg

Self Assessment Questions 1

1. The term ‘stress’ is derived from which Latin word?
2. What is acute stress?
3. Define stressors.
4. Name the different types of stressors.
5. What are the three stages of General Adaptation Syndrome?

12.4 STRATEGIES/TECHNIQUES FOR

MANAGEMENT OF STRESS
Management of stress requires identifying the stress and the stressors, i.e., the
factors causing stress; and also assessing the level of stress. Identification of
stress requires one to identify the various signs and symptoms of stress, which
can be physical/physiological, emotional, and behavioural.
Identification of Stress
• Physical signs: changes in heart beat, blood pressure, body weight,
diabetes, sleep problem, stomach upset, aches, headache, frequent cold or
infections, muscle tension, changes in menstrual cycle and libido.
• Psychological signs: difficulty in concentration, and troubles in
remembering and recalling, worries.
• Emotional signs: being angry, moody, irritable, sad, anxious or
frustrated.
• Behavioral signs: poor self-care, not having time for the things you enjoy
or taking to drugs and alcohol to cope, smoking, overeating, gambling,
excessive internet use.
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Applications of We can identify the stressors based on situations, activities, and relationships
Positive Psychology that cause ‘trauma’ to one’s physical, emotional, or psychological self. It can
be from school, work situation, family relationship, legal matters, finances,
health, illness, environment and other living situation. The most widely used
psychological tool for measuring the perception of stress by the individual is
the ‘Perceived Stress Scale’ (PSS). It assesses the extent to which individuals
perceive their life situations/events as stressful. Stress assessment also involves
questionnaires, check lists and interview with the person and significant others
to understand the stress and take appropriate measures to manage the stress.
Stress can be a short-term issue or a long-term issue. However, regular
management of stress is the key to lead a happy life. The most important point
is how one perceives the stress events and facts. This is best explained by Hans
Seyle (1979) - “Stress is a ‘perception’. It is the demand that is imposed upon us
because there are too many alternatives”. The concept and principles of positive
psychology can be applied to manage our stress effectively and to promote a
healthy life and a positive response to family and society.

12.4.1 Strategies Focusing on Physical Aspect and Breathing

• Physical exercise
Regular physical exercise is beneficial for physical health as well as mental
health. Aerobics, walking, jugging, swimming, riding bicycles, playing soft
balls, and tennis etc. can help in dealing with excessive stress levels. These
forms of physical exercise increase heart capacities, lower act-rest heart rate,
provide a mental diversion from work pressures and offer a means to “Let off
steam” ( Kiely & Hadgson, 1990).
• Relaxation Technique
Jacobson Progressive Muscle Relaxation (JPMR) is a very comprehensive
relaxation technique which is based on the principle that stress and relaxation
cannot occur together as these are manifestations of sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous system respectively which reciprocally inhibit each
other.
The technique mainly starts with breathing in, holding the breath and letting go
while contracting and relaxing 16 muscle groups such as arms, hands, shoulders,
neck, forehead-eyes-scalp, jaws - mouth, chest - trunk, stomach, lower back,
buttocks, thigh, foot-calf (Ghosh 2015).
The contracting and relaxing of muscle is to be done as follows:
• Bend the arms up to the elbow, hold for a few seconds and relax.
• Clench the hands in a fist, hold for some time and open.
• Pull the shoulders in upward direction, hold in this position for a while
and then release.
• For relaxing the neck, push back the head for a few seconds and then
bring to the original position. Similarly, bring the chin down towards the
chest, for a few seconds and then bring to the original position.
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 Stress Management
• For chest, take deep breaths, hold for a few seconds and then relax. and Post Traumatic
Growth
• Pull in the stomach for a few seconds and then relax.
• For thighs, pull the knees together for a while and then relax by drifting
them apart.
• Squeeze the buttocks together and relax.
• For feet, pull your toes up in the direction of your knees, hold this
position briefly and then relax by letting go. Heels can be pressed against
the ground for a few seconds and then relaxed by letting go.
Now, rub your palms together, place them on your eyes for sometime, and
then slowly open your eyes.
• Yoga and Meditation
The main aim of Yoga is self-realization (Balaji, 2012). It is a way of life which
enables one to gain inner awareness and develop a higher consciousness to
attain ‘Mokshya’. Yoga as a practice originated in India and the term yoga is
derived from Sanskrit word ‘yuj’, meaning ‘to unite’, which indicates a union
of consciousness and body. At the practice level, yoga includes Asana (bodily
postures), Pranayam (breathing exercises) and Dhyana (meditation).
There are various types of yoga such as Karma yoga, Jnana yoga and Bhakti
yoga – mentioned in the Bhagvad Gita, which refer to the path of action, path of
knowledge, and the path of devotion respectively. Ashtanga yoga of Maharshi
Patanjali talks about the eight limbs or steps in the path to self-realization (you
will learn more about it in the next unit 13).
Meditation (‘Dhyana’ in Sanskrit language) aims at quietening our mind to gain
inner awareness and spiritual enlightenment. It also helps manage stress and
enhances one’s health and well-being. There are various types of meditation
(Welch, 2019) such as:
• Mindfulness meditation refers to developing awareness about one’s thoughts
and emotions in the present moment, without any judgment. It involves
shifting from our default auto pilot mode to moment-to-moment awareness
mode. Mindfulness meditation originates from Buddhist teachings. The
main characteristics of mindfulness according to Kabat-Zinn (1990) are
being non-judgmental, cultivating patience, being open minded, having
trust, non-striving, acceptance and letting go.
Mindful breathing
• Sit comfortably with erect and relaxed posture and eyes closed.
• Focus on your breath as you inhale and exhale without trying to change
it.
• If any other thought comes to your mind, just notice it without any
judgement, and then gently bring back your focus on your breath.
• Mindfulness can help reduce stress and promote positive mental
health. 213
Applications of • Mantra meditation uses a repetitive sound, usually “Om” for chanting. It
Positive Psychology can also be any other word/phrase or 1-2 lines prayer, which can be spoken
loudly or quietly. It is prevalent in Hindu and Buddhist traditions and aims
at achieving a deeper consciousness.
• Transcendental meditation also involves chanting of a ‘mantra’/ or a word
which is specific to each practitioner, and gradually intends to transcend or
move beyond this specific chanting.
Biofeedback:
Biofeedback provides feedback about the physiological changes that occur
in stressful situations. According to Ghosh (2015, p. 179), biofeedback is “a
technique of making unconscious or involuntary bodily processes (as heartbeat
or brainwaves) perceptible to the senses (as by the use of an oscilloscope) in
order to manipulate them by conscious mental control”. Awareness of such
physiological chages as heart rate, breathing, blood pressure etc. will enable the
individual to consciously regulate them (by engaging in deep breathing, relaxation
exercises, changing our thoughts etc.), and reduce stressful experience.

12.4.2 Strategies Focusing on Cognitive Processes

Cognitive Restructuring:
The way we think about a particular situation/event influences the way we
react to it. Our beliefs affect the interpretation of the event, e.g., failure in an
exam may lead one student to put in more effort for the next exam, whereas the
same event may lead one to feel dejected. The underlying belief here makes
the difference! In the earlier case, the student may feel sad about the result,
but looks forward to perform better next time; whereas in the latter case, the
student thinks this is the end and thinks himself as inadequate and incompetent.
Thus the antecedent event results in a particular consequence depending on the
individual’s beliefs or thought process. This is explained in the ABC triangle
given below.

Fig. 12.3: ABC Triangle

Thus cognitive restructuring requires one to restructure or modify one’s thinking

patterns. Based on this, Aaron Beck (1967) has developed the Cognitive behavior
therapy (CBT), which focuses on modifying the irrational thinking patterns of
the individual, resulting in adaptive behavior and stress reduction.
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Positive Attitude: Stress Management
and Post Traumatic
Positive attitude refers to having an attitude that good things will happen, that Growth
one would be able to deal with a challenge or an adverse situation. Thus it
involves thinking in a positive way, and having positive emotions towards the
stressful situation. As the proverbial question goes, “if the glass is half full
or half empty”?, positive attitude involves looking at things/situations/events/
people and focusing on what positive or good is present rather than looking
at the negative or absence side. Thus it involves characteristics of optimism,
hope, divergent thinking, and resilience. Positive attitude makes one confident,
results in problem solving, reduces stress, and increases the inner strength of
the individual.
You must be thinking why don’t we have a positive attitude then? Mostly
we are attuned to negative thinking because of the ‘negativity bias’ of our
brain. Our brain easily picks up the negatives as it concerns survival from an
evolutionary point of view. However, we can easily develop a positive attitude
by developing awareness about it. Practicing positive attitude is a constructive
process where you do not negate the negative thoughts. Rather you adopt a
critical approach to the situation and think about the best possible alternatives
in the situation while maintaining an attitude of positivity. Positive thinking
makes your thinking flexible and opens up possibilities. The focus of thinking
is contextual, not global, e.g., if you failed the job interview, you think in the
context of one interview which did not go well, and you do not think that you
will never do well in a job interview.
Positive attitude involves cognitive restructuring where we deliberately engage
in thinking in positive terms. We need to practice positive affirmations and
focus on the positive side of any challenge. Engage in positive self-talk and use
visualization strategies. Create a mental picture of what you want to achieve and
how you want to see the things. This will then help you to engage in constructive
and divergent thinking regarding ways to achieve this goal. Remember that we
first create a mental picture; the physical or actual creation follows this mental
creation, for instance, when you are doing a project, or planning a trip etc. Since
we are hard-wired for negative thinking, it will require real effort and practice
to change our default mode of thinking and engage in positive thinking. This
will help to manage our stress and be effective in a situation.
Expressing Gratitude:
Gratitude refers to ‘The quality of being thankful or grateful’. It involves
showing appreciation for something. Expressing gratitude also fosters positive
attitude in the individual as it reduces our attention on the negative things in
our life. If you think about our traditions and culture, our festivals and rituals
offer occasions for showing our gratitude towards nature, other people, and
our ancestors. We need to recognize and consciously focus on cultivating an
attitude of gratitude.
Gratitude not only makes you feel good by generating positive emotions, but also
boosts our physical health and psychological well-being. It releases dopamine
and serotonin which make us feel happy. Gratitude widens our thinking and
perspective, and enhances resilience. One needs to practice gratitude, e.g.,
215
Applications of by writing gratitude letters, that is, letters that express your thankfulness to
Positive Psychology someone; gratitude visits where you visit people to express how grateful you
are for their support; counting your blessings, i.e., focusing on the good things
in your life; keeping a gratitude journal where you write down your positive
experiences during the day etc.
Gratitude for yourself: Be aware about yourself. Find out your strengths,
focus on what is good in you and express gratitude.
Gratitude for others: Be aware of contribution of others in your life;
your parents have given you birth, raised you, provided for your optimum
development, education and so on. Other significant people in your life
have also contributed to your life in various ways. Your friends, colleagues,
neighbours have extended help and support to you on many occasions.
Think, identify, and express gratitude for those instances.
Gratitude for everything: Be aware of this precious life, the wonders of
the nature, this vast universe, the elements of the universe; and express
gratitude.
Coping Strategies:
Coping can be described as deliberate efforts directed towards decreasing the
negative effects of stressful situations. An adaptive coping style helps reduce
stress whereas, maladaptive coping has negative impacts on physical and
psychological health of the individual. Problem-focused coping tries to address
the problem itself, that is, removing the cause of the stress. For instance, you
switch on the fan if you are feeling too hot. However, emotion-focused coping
deals with the emotions arising out of the stressful experience, e.g., you felt
hurt by your friend’s behaviour and you tried to manage your hurt feeling by
distracting yourself in some other activity. On the other hand, acceptance-
oriented coping focuses on developing a sense of acceptance for the stressful
situation where the things ar not under control of the individual, e.g., accepting
the loss and damage of house and other properties due to the cyclone.
Individual differences exist in the way individuals cope with stressful situations.
This could be due to various factors such as personality of individuals, gender,
tolerance level for stimulation, psychological hardiness, style of attribution, and
learned helplessness (Beck et.al., 1983; Chesney et.al., 2006; Shenell et. al.,
2015, & Tang et.al., 2015).
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. What is mindfulness meditation?
2. What is cognitive restructuring?
3. Mention some of the components involved in positive attitude.
4. What is ‘negativity bias’?
5. Differentiate between problem-focused coping and emotion-focused
coping.
6. Mention some of the techniques to increase gratitude.
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12.4.3 Strategies Focusing on Affective Processes Stress Management
and Post Traumatic
Emotional Intelligence: Growth

Awareness of emotions in oneself and in others plays a crucial role in managing

our stress. In addition to the thinking component of stress, we need to pay
attention to the affective component of stress. Knowing about the emotions
will help us in changing our thinking and behavior so that it results in adaptive
behavior. Thus thinking and emotions need to be integrated which is called as
Emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995). The five components of EI, according
to Goleman, consist of self-awareness, empathy, self-regulation, motivation, and
social skills. Emotional intelligence basically involves developing awareness
about emotions in oneself and in others, and managing emotions.
Positive Visualization:
Positive visualization involves the use of imagination to visualize about a future
outcome which we desire, but may not be able to achieve at the present moment.
It can be called as mental exercise that helps one to reach the desired goal.
It mostly has been used in the context of sports to enhance the performance and
skill of the players. However, it can be used to enhance your performance in
any aspect and field. We can utilize our brain’s ability to think about future and
create a mental pathway to enhance our potential. As we have mentioned under
positive attitude in the earlier section, everything is created twice – first you
create a mental picture of your desired object, and then it is carried out in the
reality, e.g., you plan out the project or your itinerary, and then you carry out it.
Thus thoughts precede our actual behaviour. Hence if we can make it stronger
at the thought level to begin with, it may transfer to the action level. There
are two types of visualization such as (a) Outcome visualization, where you
focus on the end goal; and (b) Process visualization, which focuses on the entire
process that leads us to our desired goal. When we engage in both outcome and
process visualization, it leads to effective results.
Visualization is not just thinking and planning about a certain thing, but it requires
vivid imagination involving all the senses. It includes the cognitive as well
as affective processes related to the desired object/thing. When we repeatedly
visualize something, paying attention to the minute details, and attaching all our
senses with it, our brain gets the signal and gets motivated to engage in selective
attention, goal-directed thinking and divergent thinking. Further, effective
visualization requires us to be self-aware, knowing our strengths, beliefs, and
values so that we know what we really want to achieve.

217
Applications of
Positive Psychology

Fig. 12.4: Steps in the Visualization Process

12.4.4 Strategies Focusing on Behaviour

Engaging in Leisure Activities:
Leisure activities are those that we engage in to relax, reduce our stress, and feel
good about ourselves. These are pleasurable activities done voluntarily such as
playing games, drawing, pursuing one’s hobbies, socializing, being with nature,
and so on. Research focuses on leisure as a coping resource which has ample
benefits for our physical as well as mental health (Chun, Lee, Kim, & Heo,
2012; Pressman, Matthews, Cohen, Martire, Scheier, Baum, & Schulz, 2009;
Qian, Yarnal, & Almeida, 2014). Usually leisure time is thought of as a wastage
of time and/or given less time for it. However, leisure time has manifold benefits
and can help us engage in work and other activities with new vigour.
As there are various stressors, we also have a variety of stress-busters or coping
resources. Various leisure activities depending on the individual’s preferences
and interests can help reduce stress in the individual. It is more informative
to study each leisure activity and how it helps to cope with various stressors
rather than studying the many ways of coping with certain stressors (Costa,
Somerfield, & McCrae, 1996).
Connecting with People:
Connecting with people is an important tool to reduce stress. When we connect
and interact with others, it releases the stress and anxiety within. It results in
catharsis which reduces the stress in the individual. Feeling connected with
others helps one to get the necessary social support, increases their confidence,
and generates a feeling of trust.
Connection with our family and relatives, friends, neighbours, and the community
is a great asset in managing our stress. It provides us the support and has a
positive impact on our physical and mental health. Even if the person is not
present physically, still the perceived social connection has lots of benefits. It
provides a feeling of confidence, comfort, and assurance that someone is there
to provide you with help and support.
218
12.4.5 Stress Management Strategies at the Organizational Stress Management
and Post Traumatic
Level Growth
• Communicating Effectively:
Communication is an important interpersonal skill at the organizational
level. It helps in conveying things clearly and avoids conflicts and
misunderstanding. It can thus reduce stress and improve relationship. Main
aspects of effective communication are : active listening, being open to
feedback, paying attention to nonverbal behavior, removing barriers to
effective communication, providing personal space, and being assertive.
• Resolving Conflicts:
Conflict resolution denotes ways in which conflict can be dealt with or
resolved. One of the conflict resolution strategies include avoiding.
This denotes withdrawal from conflict. Though, in this case the actual
conflict may not resolve. But individuals may use this when they feel that
confrontation or engaging in conflict is not worthwhile and the discomfort
that they may experience while in conflict is much more than when they
avoid it. Another strategy can be competing. This is used by individuals
who engage in conflict necessarily to win. This is a win- lose situation.
Individuals using this may display assertiveness but not cooperation. Next
can be accommodating. In this case, the individual is cooperative and not
assertive. Though, this again may not be healthy as one of the parties may
just give in and as such the conflict remains unresolved. This is a lose-win
strategy. Similarly collaborating also can be one strategy where individuals
are assertive as well as cooperative and the parties may come up with an
agreed solution to resolve the conflict. This can also be termed as win-win
strategy. Compromising also help in conflict resolution, where each of the
party will compromise in some way. Thus, there is partial cooperation and
assertiveness. And though, the parties may not be completely satisfied, they
are not dissatisfied as well. individuals who are able to resolve conflicts
are often excellent mediators, rational, and able to manage difficult
personalities from a place of empathy.
• Problem Solving:
Problem solving involves finding solution to a problem at hand. It can
be explained as a mental process that includes analysis of the problem in
order to find a solution for it. Problems can be categorized into routine
and non-routine problems and well-defined and ill-defined or poorly
defined problems. The steps in problem solving include identification of
problem, brainstorming for ideas and solutions, selecting a solution and
implementing the plan of action and reflecting on the effectiveness of the
solution. Strategies of problem solving include trial and error, heuristics,
algorithm and insight-oriented methods.

12.5 POST TRAUMATIC GROWTH

Post Traumatic Growth (PTG) refers to the psychological growth that occurs
following an adversity. The recent COVID 19 pandemic offers the best
example of this. The stressful experiences and the challenges faced by people 219
Applications of throughout the world have been overwhelming and shocking. However, we are
Positive Psychology still persisting in our livelihood, adapting to the situation, and trying to find
meaning and happiness while undergoing a personal process of change.
The term post-traumatic growth refers to the adaptation and accommodation
of the individual to any crisis or traumatic situation and coming out of this by
coping to the situation in a positive manner. Post-Traumatic Growth (PTG) and
Post-Traumatic Depreciation (PTD) can be defined, respectively, as positive
and negative changes in the after effects of trauma. These changes can be
in the following domains such as personal strength, relating to others, new
possibilities, appreciation of life, spiritual and existential change (Zieba, et.al.,
2019). In other words post-traumatic growth indicates transformation after an
intense traumatic and struggling situation that occurs mostly automatically and
naturally, without psychotherapy or any other formal intervention.
The concept of post-traumatic growth has been in existence in the teachings of our
religions, spiritual and philosophical deliberations, which talk about the elements
of potentially transformative power of suffering. In the scientific research, the
term ‘Post Traumatic Growth’ was first postulated by Richard Tedeschi and
Lawrence Calhoun 1995. They define PTG as positive psychological changes
in the aftermath of highly stressful and challenging unavoidable occurrences
in life (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). PTG brings about a positive shift in our
mindset; instead of focusing on the negatives, the person searches out and
emphasizes the positives in the adverse situation. The cognitive restructuring in
the process helps us grow as better human beings (Fredrickson, 2004). Tedeschi
and Calhoun (1996) talk about five indicators of PTG in their Post-Traumatic
Growth Inventory (PTGI): Appreciation, Relationships, New possibilities and
opportunities, Personal strength, and Spiritual enhancement.
The process of PTG may differ based on the types of trauma, personality
characteristics of the person, nature of social support received and experiences
afterwards. Further, positive attitude, gender, cultural factors, and socio-
economic status may also affect the PTG (Arpawong, 2013; Cordova. 2001;
Jaehee, et.al., 2015; Wang, 2014; Yi & Kim, 2014, & Zebrack et. al., 2012).
Post-traumatic growth is an important positive psychology construct that needs
to be differentiated from resilience that is much talked about in the field of
positive psychology.
Differences between PTG and Resilience

Post-traumatic Growth (PTG) Resilience

Occurs only after exposure to Can be present before trauma also,
trauma available as part of one’s personality
An outcome of highly stressful May not occur after exposure to
situation/trauma trauma. But if a person shows PTG,
s/he develops resilience in the process
PTG always involves resilience Resilience may or may not lead to PTG
Involves transformation in the May not involve any change unless
personality – changes in one’s the person is required to show resilient
220 thinking, beliefs, attitude and behaviour in any situation
behaviour
Post-traumatic growth can be a significant phenomenon creating growth, Stress Management
balance, and continuing our life with renewed vigour and positivity. It includes and Post Traumatic
Growth
aspects/ constructs related to positive psychology such as positive attitude,
resilience, emotional strength, emotional competence, heightened gratitude
towards life, spirituality, and finding meaning in life.
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Who is considered as the pioneer of emotional intelligence?
2. What are the two types of visualization?
3. Name the conflict resolution strategies.
4. What are the five indicators of post-traumatic growth?

12.6 LET US SUM UP

Stress is like the salt and pepper of our life, presence of which makes our life
lively, energetic, varied and dynamic. However, one needs to ensure that the
stress does not go overboard and is within the stress tolerance level of the
individual. Optimum level of stress will motivate the individual and enhance
their performance. In the present unit, you learned about the meaning of stress
and the various types of stressors in our life. It is important to identify the
stress so that proper steps can be taken to manage it. Various techniques of
stress management were described focusing on physical, cognitive, affective,
and behavioural aspects. You also learned about post-traumatic growth, an
important concept in positive psychology. Post-traumatic growth helps one to
go beyond the stress and turn the adversity into opportunity or positive learning
experience.

12.7 KEY WORDS

Stress refers to any force, which physically or psychologically strains the
coping mechanism of an organism.
Diathesis-Stress Model explains the occurrence of stress as the outcome of
a dynamic interaction between the hereditary factors and the environmental
factors.
Biofeedback provides feedback about the physiological changes that occur in
stressful situations so as to regulate them consciously.
Gratitude refers to the quality of being thankful or grateful by showing
appreciation for something.
Positive visualization involves the use of imagination to visualize about a
future outcome which we desire, but may not be able to achieve at the present
moment.
Post-traumatic growth refers to the adaptation and accommodation of the
individual to any crisis or traumatic situation and coming out of this by coping
to the situation in a positive manner.

221
Applications of
Positive Psychology 12.8 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT
QUESTIONS
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. ‘stringere’
2. Acute stress is short-term stress which occurs suddenly, and the synptoms
are acute, and do not last long.
3. Stressors are the factors that cause stress.
4. physical or physiological, psychological, environmental, and socio -
cultural.
5. Alarm, Resistance, and Exhaustion
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Mindfulness meditation refers to developing awareness about one’s thoughts
and emotions in the present moment, without any judgment.
2. Cognitive restructuring requires one to restructure or modify one’s thinking
patterns.
3. Some of the components involved in positive attitude are optimism, hope,
divergent thinking, and resilience.
4. ‘Negativity bias’ refers to the fact that our brain easily picks up the negatives
as it concerns survival from an evolutionary point of view.
5. Problem-focused coping tries to address the problem itself, that is, removing
the cause of the stress whereas emotion-focused coping deals with the
emotions arising out of the stressful experience.
6. Gratitude letters, counting your blessings, gratitude visit, and gratitude
journal
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Daniel Goleman
2. Outcome visualization, which focuses on the end goal; and Process
visualization, which focuses on the entire process that leads us to our
desired goal.
3. Avoiding, competing, accomodating, collaborating, and compromising
4. Appreciation, Relationships, New possibilities and opportunities, Personal
strength, and Spiritual enhancement.

12.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Explain the concept of stress and describe the types of stressors.
2. Discuss the General Adaptation Syndrome model of stress.
222 3. Describe yoga and meditation as strategies for delig with stress.
4. Explain the stress management strategies focusing on the affective Stress Management
processes. and Post Traumatic
Growth
5. Define post-traumatic growth (PTG). Differentiate between PTG and
resilience.

12.10 REFERENCES
Arpawong, T.E., Oland, A., Milam, J.E., Ruccione, K., & Meeske, K.A. (2013).
Post-traumatic growth among an ethnically diverse sample of adolescent and
young adult cancer survivors, Psychooncology, 22(10): 2235-44.
Balaji, D. P. V. (2012). Stress and yoga. Journal of Yoga and Physical Therapy,
2, 109. doi:10.4172/2157-7595.1000109.
Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Causes and treatment. Philadelphia: University
of Pennsylvania Press.
Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., & Harrison, R. (1983). Cognitions, attitudes
and personality dimensions in depression. British Journal of Cognitive
Psychotherapy.
Chesney, M.A., Neilands, T.B., Chambers, D.B., Taylor, J.M. & Folkman, S.
(2006). A validity and reliability of the coping self-efficacy scale, Br J Health
Psychol., Page 11Author manuscript; available in PMC October 13.NIH-PA
Author Manuscript.
Chun, S., Lee, Y., Kim, B., & Heo, J. (2012). The contribution of leisure
participation and leisure satisfaction to stress-related growth. Leisure Sciences,
34:436–449.
Cordova, M.J., Cunningham, L.L., Carlson, C.R., & Andrykowski, M.A. (2001).
Posttraumatic growth following breast cancer: a controlled comparison study.
Health Psychol, 20(3):176-85.
Costa, P., Jr., Somerfield, M., & McCrae, R. (1996). Personality and coping: A
reconceptualization. In M. Zeidner, and N. Endler (Eds.) Handbook of coping:
Theory, research, applications. pp. 44-61. New York: Wiley.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). The broaden–and–build theory of positive
emotions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series
B: Biological Sciences, 359(1449), 1367-1377.
Ghosh, M. (2015). Health psychology: Concepts in Health and Wellbeing. New
Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Jaehee, Y.i., Zebrack, B., Kim, M.A. & Cousino, M. (2015). Posttraumatic
growth outcomes and their correlates among young adult survivors of childhood
cancer, J Pediatr Psychol. 40(9): 981–991. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsv075
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body
and mind to face stress, pain and illness. New York.

223
Applications of Kiely, J. & Hodgson, G. (1990). Stress in the prison service: The benefits of
Positive Psychology exercise programs, Human Relations Journal. p. 551-572 .
Pressman, S.D., Matthews, K.A., Cohen, S., Martire, L.M., Scheier, M.,
Baum, A., & Schulz, R. (2009). Association of enjoyable leisure activities with
psychological and physical well-being. Psychosom Med., 71(7):725-32.
Qian, X. L., Yarnal, C. M., & Almeida, D. M. (2014). Does leisure time moderate
or mediate the effect of daily stress on positive affect? An examination using
eight-day diary data. Journal of leisure research, 46(1), 106–124. https://doi.or
g/10.1080/00222216.2014.11950315
Schafer, W. (1998). Stress Management for Wellness. United States: Thomson
Wadsworth.
Selye, H. (1956). The stress of Life. New York: McGraw-Hill
Tang, S.T., Lin, K.C. Chen, J.S. Chang, W.C. Hsieh, C.H. & Chou, W.C.
(2015). Threatened with death but growing: changes in and determinants of
posttraumatic growth over the dying process for Taiwanese terminally ill cancer
patients. Psychooncology, 24(2):147-54.
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1995). Trauma and transformation.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory:
Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(3),
455-471.
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual
foundations and empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15 (1), 1-18.
Truxillo, D. M., Cadiz, D. M., & Hammer, L. B. (2015). Supporting the aging
workforce: a research review and recommendations for workplace intervention
research. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2, 351–381. doi: 10.1146/
annurev-orgpsych-032414-111435.
Wang, M.L., Liu, J.E., Wang, H.Y., Chen, J., & Li, Y.Y. (2014). Posttraumatic
growth and associated socio-demographic and clinical factors in Chinese breast
cancer survivors. Eur J Oncol Nurs. 18(5):478-83
Welch, A (2019). A guide to 7 different types of meditation. https://www.
everydayhealth.com/meditation/types/ Accessed on 25th December 2021 at
6.32 p.m.
Yi, J. & Kim, M.A. (2014). Postcancer experiences of childhood cancer
survivors: how is posttraumatic stress related to posttraumatic growth? J
Trauma Stress., 27(4):461-7.
Zebrack, B.J., Stuber, M.L., Meeske, K.A., Phipps, S., Krull, K.R., Liu, Q.,
Yasui, Y., Parry, C., Hamilton, R., Robison, L.L., & Zeltzer, L.K. (2012).
Perceived positive impact of cancer among long-term survivors of childhood
cancer: A report from the childhood cancer survivor study. Psychooncology.
21(6):630-9.
224
Zięba, M., Wiecheć, K., Biegańska-Banaś, J., & Mieleszczenko-Kowszewicz, W. Stress Management
(2019). Coexistence of post-traumatic growth and post-traumatic depreciation and Post Traumatic
Growth
in the aftermath of trauma: Qualitative and quantitative narrative analysis.
Frontiers in Psychology, 10: 687. DOI=10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00687

12.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Goyal, P., & Chakrawal, A. (2016). Stress management. New Delhi: Studera
Press
Niemiec, R.M. (2019). The strengths-based workbook for stress relief: A
character strengths approach to finding calm in the chaos of daily life. Oaklands,
CA: New Harbinger Publications.
Schachter, R. (2019). Mindfulness for stress management: 50 ways to improve
your mood and cultivate calmness. California: Althea Press.
Selhub, E. (2019). The stress management handbook: A practical guide to
staying calm, keeping cool, and avoiding blow-ups. NY: Skyhorse publishing.
Stahl, B., & Goldstein, E. (2019). A mindfulness-based stress reduction
workbook. 2nd edition. Oaklands, CA: New Harbinger Publications.

225
Applications of
Positive Psychology UNIT 13 YOGA AND MEDITATION*
Structure
13.1 Learning Objectives
13.2 Introduction
13.3 What is Yoga
13.4 Patanjali’s Yoga
13.4.1 The Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali

13.5 What is Meditation

13.6 Major Categories of Meditation
13.6.1 Other Forms of Meditation

13.7 Benefits of Meditation

13.8 Modern Psychological Interventions Integrating Meditation
13.9 Let Us Sum Up
13.10 Key Words
13.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
13.12 Unit End Questions
13.13 References and Suggested Readings

13.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you would be able to:
• Know the various meanings of Yoga;
• Learn about Patanjali’s yoga;
• Explain the Ashtanga yoga of Patanjali;
• Know the meaning of meditation;
• Describe the major categories of meditation;
• Learn about the benefits of meditation; and
• Recognize the role of yoga and meditation in positive mental health.

13.2 INTRODUCTION
The values and assumptions based on which people find answers to ‘why’ and
‘how’ questions, i.e., meaning in life and the right way to live, is influenced
by culture. These ideas are deep-rooted and are not choices but work below
the surface of awareness. Since positive psychology has developed in western
culture, it has an underlying lens of individualism (Christopher 2008).
226
Dr. Jyotsna Agrawal, Associate Professor, Department of Clinical Psychology, Faculty in-Charge,
*

VIPRA (Vedic Indian Psychology Research & Application), NIMHANS, Bangalore

Indian culture has a rich philosophical-psychological heritage and a different Yoga and
perspective on human life and its ultimate goal. Therefore, it would be apt Meditation
to explore indigenous ideas of positive mental health, which seems to be
closely related to yoga and meditation. A number of studies have already been
accumulated, indicating various benefits of yoga and meditation for both mind
and body. Hence it is relevant to understand yoga and meditation in their totality,
which you will learn in this Unit.
WHO (2001) definition of mental health includes positive mental health and
well-being Positive psychology can play a significant role here and can provide
various insights for positive mental health interventions. Various studies have
shown that positive psychology based interventions buffer against stress,
improve health and productivity, and enhance social connectedness (Vázquez,
2009). Here, yoga and meditation can be used as effective positive psychology
interventions to enhance positive mental health and well-being.

13.3 WHAT IS YOGA

Living with a deep and permanent sense of well-being, along with finding
freedom from suffering, can seem like an unachievable goal. However, this is
the promise of yoga if we are willing to sincerely walk on the path of yoga in its
complete form. In recent times yoga is often perceived as synonymous with a
combination of asanas (bodily postures) and praṇayama (breathing exercises),
along with the inclusion of meditation (Goyal, et al., 2014). Nevertheless, that
has not been the meaning of yoga as explained over the centuries in the Indian
civilisation, where it is a set of practices to access higher consciousness and
states of being. Yoga literally means to yoke, from the Sanskrit root ‘yuj’,
which means to join and refers to experiencing oneness with the supreme
consciousness. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume XII, Yoga:
India’s Philosophy of Meditation (Larson and Bhattacharya, 2016), defines
yoga in two ways. First, yoga means all those techniques people practice to
find release from their existential suffering and achieve consciousness. Second,
yoga refers to a specific school of Indian philosophy given by Patanjali in his
text Yogasutra.
Thus, to fully appreciate its role in positive mental health, we need to explore yoga
deeply, its aims and related assumptions. One of the core assumptions is related
to how the world is made of not just matter but has underlying consciousness.
Based on this idea, yogic practices aim towards experiencing pure consciousness
or some similar higher state considered as liberation in a specific yogic system.
A variety of terms have been used for such liberated states, such as Kaivalya,
Mukti etc. This liberation is not a transitory state experienced only during deep
meditation but a complete transformation of one’s ordinary living, working and
relating to others (Agrawal & Cornelissen, 2021).
The three major Yogic paths or the trimarga of bhakti, jnana, and karma yoga,
is a standard method to categorise these multiple styles and systems. These
three pathways are discussed next (Agrawal & Cornelissen, 2021).
Bhakti yoga: The yogic path of ‘bhakti’ focuses on the cultivation of emotions
around the Divine and supposedly results in bliss when one achieves oneness
with one’s preferred form of God. In the process, one lets go of ego and desire- 227
Applications of based lifestyle. This path may seem to be familiar and probably most accessible.
Positive Psychology Thus, one may note a large number of bhakti saints revered in different parts of
the country.
Jnana yoga: The Jnanayoga path is that of cognitive realisation of the oneness
of consciousness, which may later be experienced first-hand and experientially.
Here again, one may drop one’s biases and note the reality as it is, thus removing
many sources of pain and suffering.
Karma yoga: This path, most famously described in the Bhagavad Gita, is
associated with the proper use of one’s volition or willpower. This path’s core
is working without desires (nishkama karma) and not being attached to specific
outcomes, thereby finding inner freedom. One does work with one’s utmost
capacities, skillfully, and with an attitude of fulfilling one’s duties for the larger
good of the world. Even when one engages in one’s regular affairs, this path too
can lead to ultimate freedom, as discussed in other yogic paths.
It is relevant to note that most people do not practice these yogic paths in an
isolated manner. Instead, they may mix components, with some or other aspect
being dominant, indicating their own personal synthesis. Even yogis and mystics
combine these paths in their discourses. Yogi-philosopher Sri Aurobindo has
given Integral Yoga, with a synthesis of these paths not just in application but
also in their philosophy in his book Synthesis of Yoga.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Name the trimarga yoga.
2. Cultivation of emotions around the Divine is known as Karma yoga.
True or False.
3. The cognitive realisation of the oneness of consciousness is Jnana
yoga. True or False.
4. Karma yoga has been extensively described in ___________ text.
5. Working without desires is called as ____________ karma.

13.4 PATANJALI’S YOGA

As mentioned, one way to understand yoga is to follow Patanjali’s Yogasutra.
The text Yogasutra as codified by Patanjali is a millennia old text from India,
and evidence from archaeology, various other texts, and oral tradition indicate
that this yogic system is probably more than 5000 years old. It describes
yoga philosophy, steps and outcomes, and has many ancient and modern
commentaries written on it. There are 195 Sanskrit verses (known as Sutras)
in Patanjali Yogasutra, categorised in 4 chapters (Pada) to explain profound
ideas in the philosophy of mind and its applications. While yoga means union,
sutra denotes thread and formula both; thus, Yogasutra may mean a thread of
formulas codifying methods to achieve union with the highest Consciousness.
These Sutras are short and crisp, meant to be learnt by-heart, chanted and
contemplated upon easily, since these were written when printing was either
unavailable, or expensive and time-consuming. This system is also termed
228 Raja-yoga, roughly translated as the king of yoga (Taimini, 1961).
Patanjali Yogasutra begins by providing a definition of yoga as the process Yoga and
of silencing the mind, by stopping the waves of mental activities known as Meditation
Chitta-vrittis which include things like misconceptions, future imaginations,
and memory of past. The mind of a yogi, which is a calm and silent mind
can be achieved through: (a) constant practice (Abhyasa), (b) and detachment
(Vairagya). Certain other helpful psychological aids are also mentioned: ((i)
Faith (Shraddha), (ii) Courage and strength (Virya), (iii) Memory and learning
(Smriti), and (iv) Wisdom associated with higher states (Samadhi Prajna). The
role of motivation and effort has further been emphasised.
Klesha model of suffering
One of the important models on psychological causes of suffering as presented
by Patanjali is the following five core afflictions (Klesha):
a) Avidya - which is the primary ignorance of our true Self, and it is described
to be an error where one believes the non-eternal to be everlasting, the
impure as pure, misunderstands suffering as happiness, and non-self to be
the Self.
b) Asmita - it is developed next when one misunderstands the mind to be our
true Self.
c) Raga - it is the attachment to pleasure.
d) Dwesha - it is the aversion to pain.
e) Abhinivesha - the desire for living and fear of death is the fifth affliction.
At any point in time, these five afflictions can be either dormant, attenuated,
manifest or powerful, and when active, they can keep us in the cycle of action-
reaction (Karma).
Overcoming Klesha
To overcome these afflictions and to avoid future suffering, one needs to
realise the true Self as separate from the material world, made up of Triguna,
i.e., the principles of Sattva/ light, Rajas/ movement and Tamas/ inertia. One
can overcome afflictions by the practice of Kriyayoga, i.e., practicing self-
study (svadhyaya), disciplined endurance (tapa) and surrender to Supreme
Consciousness (Ishvara-pranidhana). These steps are also part of Niyama, one
of the eight limbs of Ashtanga yoga, which are described in next section.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Patanjali’s Yogasutra has 195 sutras divided in _______ number of
chapters.
2. Vairagya refers to ____________.
3. The five Klesha are avidya, _________, ____________, _________
and abhinivesha.
4. Abhinivesha means the desire for living and fear of death. True or
False.
5. The klesha can remain as dormant, _______, ________ or become
229
powerful.
Applications of 13.4.1 The Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali
Positive Psychology
The most famous contribution of Patanjali is his comprehensive system of
Ashtanga yoga (the eight-limb). It not only purifies the mind, but also helps in
experiencing the state of deepest absorption or samadhi.
1. Yamas: The five yamas emphasise ethics in one’s relations to the outer
world, not only in actions but also in speech and thoughts. These yamas
are:
i. Non-harming (Ahimsa)
ii. Truthfulness (Satya)
iii. Non-stealing (Asteya)
iv. Following the highest truth (Brahmacharya), and
v. Non-possessiveness (Aparigraha)
2. Niyamas: The five Niyamas are focused on our relationship to ourselves.
These are:
i. Purity of body and mind (Saucha)
ii. Contentment (Santosha)
iii. Highest discipline (Tapa)
iv. Study and analysis of oneself (Svadhyaya), and
v. Surrender to the Divine (Ishwara Pranidhana)
The first two limbs of Yama-Niyama are the foundations of the practice, and
when they are consistently practised beyond consideration for individual and
contextual variations, such as that of place, time, context or family lineage etc.,
these can become the great vows (Mahavrata). Special powers and capacities
may develop when any of these Yamas and Niyamas are established within
a person as a great vow through unwavering practice. The last three Niyama
of Tapa, Svadhyaya and Ishwara-pranidhana is also known as Kriya-yoga and
can remove five afflictions. As per Patanjali, even merely the practice of last
Niyama (Ishwara-pranidhana) can lead to the highest Samadhis.
3. Asana: Asana is described as that which leads to comfortable stability
(sthira sukham asanam – PYS 2.46). When asana is practised meditatively
without efforts, one can experience equanimity and non-duality.
4. Pranayama: Pranayama is described as the stopping of inhalation and
exhalation, which can improve attention and prepare the mind for advanced
yoga.
5. Pratyahara: Pratyahara is disengaging and withdrawing one’s mind from
the external, sensory objects of attention.
6. Dharana: Dharana is the act of holding attention to a single object or
point.
230
7. Dhyana: When this one-pointed attention becomes steady and unbroken, it Yoga and
is called Dhyana. Meditation

8. Samadhi: When the state of deep absorption is reached, where only the
object of attention is left and not the mind, it is known as samadhi.
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. The five yamas are: ahimsa, satya, ________, brahmacharya, and
____________.
2. The five niyamas are Saucha, ________, ___________ , svadhyaya
and Ishwara pranidhana.
3. Asana is an uncomfortable stable pose. True or False.
4. Pranayama is described as the ongoing of inhalation and exhalation.
True or False.

13.5 WHAT IS MEDITATION

Meditation is an English term with Latin roots (meditari; to think, reflect or
contemplate) and indicate ‘deep exploration of mind’ (Goleman & Davidson,
2017). It is considered a ‘technique to control the mind’ (Rao & Paranjpe,
2016) by controlling our attention and awareness (Walsh & Shapiro, 2006). The
process of meditation goes from attending to an object (Dharana), sustaining
this attention in an unbroken manner (Dhyana) to complete absorption into
it (Samadhi). Another term Bhavana is also used in Patanjali Yogasutra for
cultivating maitri, mudita, karuna and upeksha. Meditation aims towards a higher
state of consciousness. As by-products of this process, healing and developing
special powers are noted. The various definitions of meditation may not fully
capture its essence due to the limitations of language. The US Department of
Health and Human Services reached a similar conclusion regarding challenges
in developing a taxonomy of meditation. Using expert consensus, (Cardoso,
deSouza, Camano, & Leite, 2004) tried to capture the meaning of meditation
through five core criteria based upon its process and outcomes, to overcome
some of these limitations. These were - it is done by oneself, using a technique,
by relaxing the body, and the analytic mind, while focusing on oneself. Other
relevant aspects of meditation were found to be - a spiritual-philosophical
context, mental silence and possibility of an altered consciousness.
Many of the currently popular meditation techniques originated in the Indian
civilization thousands of years back. It was introduced to the West in 1920
when Indian monk Paramahansa Yogananda travelled to USA. Around the
1970s, meditation got scientific attention when another Indian monk from the
Himalayan tradition Swami Rama demonstrated voluntary control over multiple
bodily organs in USA. Within a lab setting, he changed brain waves, heart
functioning and skin temperature, which were known to be entirely automatic
processes. Subsequently, American Psychological Association (1977) issued a
statement noting that “meditation may facilitate the psychotherapeutic process”
and also encouraging further research “to evaluate its possible usefulness” (as
cited by Kutz, Borysenko and Benson, 1985).
231
Applications of
Positive Psychology 13.6 MAJOR CATEGORIES OF MEDITATION
a) Concentrative Meditation: In this category of meditation, we focus all
attention on a single point / object / idea/ image / sound. This meditation
process is described in Dharana-Dhyana stages of Patanjali’s ashtanga
yoga, where we develop an unbroken flow of attention towards a single
point. The process also includes removing attention from other distractions,
as done in pratyahara stage. It also includes noticing when one has got
distracted internally, by one’s own thoughts and bringing attention back to
the focus of attention.
b) Mindfulness Meditation: This ancient meditation from India was
rediscovered and popularised through his teachings by Buddha. In this
category of meditation, we try to keep an open and curious attitude towards
whatever is happening in the body or mind. We remain aware of our
thoughts, feelings and sensations in the present moment. When we notice
these without any judgment or need for control, we can then let them go.
c) Transcendental Meditation: Maharshi Mahesh Yogi is acknowledged
to be the founder of this meditation technique, who developed it in 1958.
Here we may start with silently reciting a mantra, which is usually a
short, monosyllabic sound. However, in the process of meditating, we are
supposed to transcend it or go beyond it.

13.6.1 Other Forms of Meditations

• Japa/ Mantra Meditation: here we repeat a sacred word or phrase (mantra),
either silently or with sound, for a pre-decided number of rounds or for a
specific duration of time. This has components of Dhyana or concentrative
meditation. The focus of attention is on the meaning of the mantra and its
sound, and ignoring both external and internal distractions. As mentioned
earlier, Transcendental meditation also uses a mantra, but instead of focusing
on the mantra itself, the aim is to transcend it (Lynch, et al., 2018).
• Yoga Nidra, Shavasana: In these types of meditations, we sequentially
relax our bodies. Additionally, there may be specific visualization included.
In Yoga Nidra, one also attempts to develop a witnessing quality.
• Other Common Meditation Practices: A few other commonly practiced
meditations are related to body or breath, such as scanning the body for
various sensations or focusing attention on one’s breathing. Another type
of meditation is related to Kundalini, where one tries to awaken and uplift
the psycho-spiritual energy in one’s body. Yogasana when done mindfully
with rhythmic breaths is a type of movement meditation, and other such
types are the Chinese practices of Tai Chi and Qi Gong. It may be noted
that this is not an exhaustive list, and many other meditation techniques
may also be practised by people worldwide. However, most meditations
may have some or other processes given above, or even a combination of
them (Hussain & Bhushan, 2010).
Different meditation techniques may have different benefits, suit different
people or suit the same person in a different growth stage. Often, a combination
232 of techniques is also present in diverse spiritual traditions. Many people practice
a combination of these techniques. These techniques do not exist in isolation, Yoga and
especially in the context of their origin. They are related to various assumptions Meditation
about the nature of reality, the place of an individual in the larger scheme of
things, and an ethical way of living.
Self Assessment Questions 4
1. Various techniques to control the mind are known as meditation.
True or False.
2. The famous Swami _________ had demonstrated voluntary control
over multiple bodily organs in a lab in USA.
3. Maharshi __________ started the Transcendental meditation
movement.
4. Focusing on a single point is known as ________________.
5. Meditation where we remain aware of our thoughts, feelings and
sensations in the present moment is known as ________________.
6. Yogasana, Tai Chi and Qi Gong are also considered body-based
meditation. True or False.

13.7 BENEFITS OF MEDITATION

There has been an explosion of research on meditation since 1970, using both
psychological and physiological measures. These studies have been done
in advanced meditations with many years of practice and novice, beginner
meditators. Similarly, it has been explored both in healthy populations and
those suffering from mental or physical illnesses.
In a review of the research (Hussain & Bhushan, 2010), meditation leads to
multiple effects on the autonomic nervous system, slowing heart rate, decreased
oxygen use, and lowered blood pressure. Other common findings related to
meditation are increased alpha waves in the brain correlated with deep relaxation
and theta waves associated with peace and blissful feeling, along with reduced
activity in the brain’s emotional centres. Improved attention, perceptual abilities,
learning, memory, emotional maturity, and resilience also seem to be present.
Other reviews (Goyal, et al., 2014) focusing on meditation studies in the
clinical population have reported a decrease in stress and anxiety, rumination,
trauma symptoms, depression, de-addiction, and improvement in sleep, quality
of life, well-being, self-compassion, and psychological flexibility. Studies on
meditation’s effect on physical health have commonly found improvement in
hypertension, cardiovascular disorders, respiratory disorders, musculoskeletal
diseases, better management of pain, headache, skin issues and improved
immune response (Hussain & Bhushan, 2010).
Need for caution: It is also essential to take a cautious approach (Fjorback
& Walach, 2012). Some studies have indicated specific adverse effects, often
related to distress due to the resurfacing of old traumatic memories or unpleasant
thoughts. Further, with those diagnosed with psychotic disorders, one needs a
clinician’s judgement before introducing meditation. A thoughtful choice needs
233
Applications of to be made. There may also be individual responses to meditation, and personal
Positive Psychology guidance from a trained mentor is desirable.

13.8 MODERN PSYCHOLOGICAL

INTERVENTIONS INTEGRATING
MEDITATION
Due to various benefits, meditation has increasingly been integrated with
counselling and psychotherapy over the last few decades. It began with Benson’s
relaxation response and became popular with Jon Kabat-Zinn’s Mindfulness-
Based Stress Reduction Program. Subsequently, an entire trend of integrating
meditation with modern psychology started, with examples like Mindfulness-
Based Cognitive Therapy, Mindfulness-Based Relapse Prevention etc. (Fjorback
& Walach, 2012). The classic Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program is
conducted in a group format across eight weeks. One needs to engage in daily
individual meditation and other homework for at least 30 minutes and a weekly
group meeting of 2.5 hours.
In India too there has been a lot of research and application of yoga and meditation
in the health setting (Kumar, Bhide, Arasappa, Varambally, & Gangadhar,
2021). Given the variety of meditation-contemplation and philosophical
systems available in the country with both experts in these systems as well as
a population open to these systems, one may find rich literature in this area.
Sattva Enhancement Therapy and Sattva Cultivation Program is one such
module developed at National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences,
Bengaluru which integrated yoga psychology and meditation for improving
mental health (Agrawal, 2021).
It is also important to remember that at the core of these traditions lies the belief
that one can live a life with inner freedom, and it needs to be experienced first-
hand and personally. Therefore, a global movement is happening now where
psychologists themselves are engaging in yoga and meditation to experience its
benefits before teaching it to others.

13.9 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, you learned about yoga and meditation, two important aspects
of Indian culture and tradition. These have significant implications for our
positive mental health and creating a life of awareness, harmony and higher
consciousness. The meaning of yoga and meditation was explained. Patanjali’s
yoga was discussed and the ‘klesha model of suffering’ explained. Further, the
eight steps in the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali were described. You also learned
about various categories of meditation. Yoga and meditation have contributed
a lot to our well-being as evidenced in their integration in psychological
interventions resulting in various therapeutic programmes such as mindfulness-
based stress reduction programme and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy.

13.10 KEY WORDS

Yoga is a set of practices to access higher consciousness and states of being.

234 Karma Yoga involves working without desires (nishkama karma) and not
being attached to specific outcomes, thereby finding inner freedom.
Jnana Yoga refers to the cognitive realisation of the oneness of Yoga and
consciousness. Meditation

Pratyahara is disengaging and withdrawing one’s mind from the external,

sensory objects of attention.
Dharana is the act of holding attention to a single object or point.
Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali consists of eight parts (limbs) that purifies the mind,
and also helps in experiencing the state of deepest absorption or samadhi.
Meditation aims towards a higher state of consciousness by controlling our
mind.
Transcendental Meditation involves silently reciting a mantra, which is
usually a short, monosyllabic sound.

13.11 ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Bhakti, Jnana, Karma
2. False
3. True
4. Bhagavad Gita
5. nishkama
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Four
2. Detachment
3. Asmita, Raga, Dwesha
4. True
5. attenuated, manifest
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Asteya, Aparigraha
2. Santosha, Tapa
3. False
4. False
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 4
1. True
2. Swami Rama
235
Applications of 3. Maharshi Mahesh Yogi
Positive Psychology
4. Concentrative meditation
5. Mindfulness meditation
6. True

13.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Describe Patanjali’s Ashtanga Yoga.
2. Explain Klesha model of suffering as given in Patanjali’s yogasutra.
3. Describe the various categories of meditation.
4. Discuss the role of yoga and meditation for positive mental health and well-
being.

13.13 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

READINGS
Agrawal, J. (2021). Sattva Enhancement Therapy: An illustrative report. Indian
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48(2), 3-6.
Agrawal, J., & Cornelissen, M. (2021). Yoga and Positive Mental Health. In S.
G. Shivarama Varambally, Art and Science of Yoga in Mental and Neurological
Healthcare A Manual.
Cardoso, R., deSouza, E., Camano, L., & Leite, J. R. (2004). Meditation in
health: an operational definition. Brain Research Protocols, 58-60.
Christopher, J. C. (2008). Positive psychology, ethnocentrism, and the disguised
ideology of individualism. Theory & psychology, 18(5), 563-589.
Fjorback, L. O., & Walach, H. (2012). Meditation based therapies—a systematic
review and some critical observations. Religions, 3(1), 1-18.
Goleman, D., & Davidson, R. (2017). The science of meditation: How to change
your brain, mind and body. UK: Penguin.
Goyal, M., Singh, S., Sibinga, E. M., Gould, N. F., Rowland-Seymour, A.,
Sharma, R., & ... & Haythornthwaite, J. A. (2014). Meditation programs for
psychological stress and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
JAMA internal medicine, 174(3), 3.
Hussain, D., & Bhushan, B. (2010). Psychology of meditation and health:
Present status and future directions. International Journal of Psychology and
Psychological Therapy, 10(3), 439-451.
Kumar, V., Bhide, S. R., Arasappa, R., Varambally, S., & Gangadhar, B. N.
(2021). ‘Soother of mind’–meditation in psychiatric disorders: a narrative
review. BJPsych Advances, 1-7.
Kutz, H. L. (1985). Meditation as an adjunct to psychotherapy. Psychotherapy
and psychosomatics, 43(4), 209-218.
236
Larson, G. J. (2016). The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume XII, Yoga and
Yoga: India’s Philosophy of Meditation. Motilal Banarsidass. Meditation

Lynch, J., Prihodova, L., Dunne, P. J., Carroll, A., Walsh, C., McMahon, G., &
White, B. (2018). Mantra meditation for mental health in the general population:
A systematic review. European Journal of Integrative Medicine, 23, 101-108.
Rao, K. R., & Paranjpe, A. C. (2016). Psychology in the Indian tradition.
Springer. doi:10.1007/978-81-322-2440-2.
Taimini, I. K. (1961). Science of Yoga. Quest Books.
Vázquez, C. H. (2009). Psychological well-being and health. Contributions of
positive psychology. Annuary of clinical and health psychology, 5, 15-27.
Walsh, R., & Shapiro, S. L. (2006). The meeting of meditative disciplines
and Western psychology: A mutually enriching dialogue. The American
Psychologist, 61(3), 227–239. doi:doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227
WHO. (2001). Mental Health : New Understanding, New Hope.

237
Applications of
Positive Psychology UNIT 14 APPLICATIONS OF POSITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE–I*
Structure
14.1 Learning Objectives
14.2 Introduction
14.3 Positive Schooling
14.4 Challenges in Indian Schools
14.5 Applying Positive Psychology to Schools
14.5.1 Components of Positive Schooling

14.5.2 Theoretical Models of Positive Schooling

14.5.3 Positive Interventions

14.6 Positive Parenting

14.6.1 Mindfulness in Parenting

14.7 Ways to Practice Positive Parenting

14.8 Let Us Sum Up
14.9 Key Words
14.10 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
14.11 Unit End Questions
14.12 References and Suggested Readings

14.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you would be able to:
• Explain the concept of positive schooling and positive parenting;
• Discuss the components of positive schooling;
• Describe the meaning and importance of positive interventions on the well-
being of students;
• Explain mindfulness approach in parenting; and
• Describe the different aspects of engaging in positive parenting.

14.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units you have learned about the constructs of positive
psychology. In this unit and subsequent units, you will learn about how we can
use positive psychology constructs and principles in different areas to improve
various aspects of our lives. In this Unit, you will learn about applications of
positive psychology in two crucial areas of parenting and schooling, which are
238
Prof. Swati Patra, Faculty of Psychology, SOSS, Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU),
*

New Delhi
responsible for building the foundation of children. Children are the future of Applications of
any nation that needs to be nurtured. They need to be equipped with necessary Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–I
life skills so that they reach their optimum development and contribute to the
progress of the nation. However, our young generation is not a homogenous
group. They come from diverse backgrounds that can impact their growth and
development differently. Two significant sources of influence on the lives of
children are their parents and their school. Hence it is important to understand
these two aspects in a child’s life so that they can facilitate comprehensive
development of the child. Positive psychology with a focus on “what is good”
and “what are the strengths” in the individual, has the potential to contribute to
the all round development and well-being of children. In the present Unit, you
will learn how positive psychology principles and constructs can be applied in
the school context and in parenting practices resulting in a happy, healthy, and
resilient future generation.
The Centre on the Developing Child, Harvard University (2021) outlines three
core principles as the building blocks to promote positive outcomes for the
growing children. These are (a) Responsive relationships with parents, (b)
Strengthening of core skills such as cognitive skills, emotion regulation skills
in the child, and (c) Reducing sources of stress in children that will make them
resilient and contributing members of the society. Both schools and parents can
play a huge role here in creating conducive environment at school and home to
reduce stress and facilitate positive development of children.
Children enter the school with various levels of expectations, motivation, fear
and anxiety regarding how their needs will be met, how others will interact with
them, how they will perform, and how they will maintain their self-esteem.
These are influenced by various demographic and cultural factors. Hence
parents need to be aware and responsive to their children’s worries, fears and
concerns. At the same time, both parents and school can take care of building
up skills in children so that it reduces stress.

14.3 POSITIVE SCHOOLING

Schooling can be considered as the foundation of a child’s life. The type of
school, nature of the teachers in the school, interaction with the school staff,
experience acquired at school – all influence the development of the child. A
positive school experience facilitates learning, achievement, skill acquisition
and personality development in children; whereas a negative experience at
school hampers proper development of children and leaves them inadequate in
their knowledge and skills.
What does schooling aim at? Schools are the second home for children and
teachers are like their second parents in the early years of schooling. Schooling
needs to provide the best of experience to children so they feel cared for. It
should impart such education as to instill confidence, and make them self-
reliant. Children should not be overloaded with information in the name of
education. The aim of education is not only to impart knowledge, but going
beyond it to develop character and wisdom in children. The ultimate objective
is the harmonious development of a child in physical, mental, social, emotional,
moral, and spiritual aspects. This will help children to achieve happiness,
239
Applications of success and well-being for themselves, and also contribute to the welfare and
Positive Psychology happiness of others.
When a child goes to school for the first time, what do they look for? They
look forward to being given love, care, affection and support; that they are
listened to, feel involved and given opportunities to explore and learn. What
are their parents’ apprehensions and expectations? They expect their children
are taken care of, are safe, no harm is caused to them, and they learn, acquire
knowledge, and gain success and achievement later in life. All this is possible
when we create a positive school environment. All children, irrespective of their
background and abilities, must feel safe, welcome, and included in the school,
and not discriminated, stigmatized, or humiliated and punished. Principles of
equity and inclusive education must be embedded in the learning environment
to support a positive schooling climate (Deb, 2018).
How do we achieve this positive schooling experience? There are three
dimensions to positive schooling:
• Physical dimension: It includes proper infrastructure in the classroom and
also in the school, proper facilities such as good laboratories, playground,
availability of clean drinking water, sufficient toilets for all, provisions for
children with disabilities and so on. School should have clean and green
space and an inviting, stimulating ambience.
• Psychological dimension: It needs to provide opportunities to promote the
cognitive capabilities and psychological well-being of children. Use of
innovative teaching methods can sustain the interest of children in learning
and lead to creativity in them. Proper disciplinary practices will help
children develop self-regulation and promote their mental health.
• Socio-emotional dimension: The school climate needs to feel warm and
welcoming. Schooling needs to develop self-awareness in terms of their
emotions, attitudes, beliefs and values; and interpersonal skills. It provides
various support services to take care of the emotional and mental health
needs of children.
Thus positive schooling aims at creating a positive school climate where
children feel safe, included, and accepted, and it actively promotes positive
behaviours and interactions (Deb, 2018). It attempts to integrate body, mind,
and heart to achieve comprehensive development of children. Schooling aims to
not only educate children, provide them training in different subjects and make
them ready for future career; schools are also the training ground for inculcating
values and disseminating culture, developing compassion and promoting well-
being of all.
A Whole School Approach
In addition to the focus on children in school, positive schooling also needs to
address the other stakeholders to create a positive climate at school, which will
foster positive development in children. Thus a “whole school approach” needs
to be followed when we talk about positive schooling. It proposes to adopt
whole school thinking where everyone in school thinks and acts in terms of
ensuring a positive school climate. Promoting mental health and well-being is
240
everyone’s concern. As Weare (2015) puts it, well-being and mental health is Applications of
“everyone’s business” in an authentic whole school approach. A whole school Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–I
thinking needs to engage the whole school community and start with a positive
and universal focus on well-being (Weare, 2015). It is characterized by the
following main aspects:
• Engaging students in different aspects of schooling such as learning, voicing
their opinions, decision-making
• Explicitly teaching social and emotional skills, attitudes and values to
students
• Engaging well-trained teachers and conducting periodic training of teachers
to update their knowledge and skills
• Providing support services and interventions to help students facing
difficulties, disabilities or any hardship
• Engaging parents and families in school activities
• Engaging specialist staff to cater to specific needs of students with
“difficulties”, follow a teamwork approach, and have provisions for referral
service.
Thus a whole school approach has multi-components, which encompasses
and mobilizes the totality of the school experience to promote well-being and
address mental health issues (National Healthy Schools Programme, 2006). It
needs to focus on students, teachers, school leaders, school staff, and parents –
all working towards a common overarching goal of creating a positive school
climate, which will ensure mental health and well-being of all. An example of
a successful whole school approach to using positive psychology approaches in
the school context is the Positive Education programme of Geelong Grammar
School of Australia (Seligman, M. E. P., Ernst, R. M., Gillham, J., Reivich, K.,
& Linkins, M. (2009). It used the science of positive psychology to improve
student and staff well-being and help them flourish. According to Seligman et. al.
(2009), positive education, which aims at preparing children for achievement and
success in life (which most schools teach), and also increasing their happiness,
well-being, resilience, and flourishing (which most parents want), can form the
basis of a new prosperity, which values both wealth and well-being.
Positive Schooling and Positive Education: Is there any difference?
Positive schools and positive education both are similar, but they differ
in significant ways. Both started around 2008 and aim at achieving well-
being of the school community. However, they are different in various key
aspects.
Positive education focuses on the individual wellbeing, thus indicating that
‘being well’ is an individual responsibility; whereas positive schools considers
the entire school as a “social system” which highlights the “contextual
responsibility” (e.g., you are not only concerned for your well-being but
also that of others around you). Thus context is the primary focus in positive
schooling. All the teaching and learning practices are rooted in a healthy
contextual development instead of having them as distinct teachings on well- 241
Applications of being. It focuses on creating a cultural ethos that supports implementation
Positive Psychology of various well-being strategies. Further, unlike positive education, which
utilizes extrinsic motivators for positive behaviours, positive schools focus
on “autonomous motivation” that will actually facilitate well-being in action
in the schools. Thus positive schooling adopts more of a socio psychological
approach, putting more emphasis on the context.
Source: Street (2021) https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/positive-schools-education-might-one-day-do-
you-know-positive-schools

Activity
1. Find out examples of various positive schooling programmes in India
and also in international scenario. Analyze each and write down the
aspects of positive schooling involved in each programme.
2. Observe aspects of positive schooling in any particular school context.
Note down the methodology of implementation of it. Further evaluate
the outcomes of these programmes.

14.4 CHALLENGES IN INDIAN SCHOOLS

Although discussion of the concept and meaning of positive schooling can be
universal, implementation of it needs to consider the sociocultural context. The
contextual factors including the demographic variables, the socio-economic
background, and the value system will influence the methodology and approach
to positive schooling. A basic challenge of Indian education system is - does our
schooling system promote learning or achievement only? (Chander, in press). As
stated by Chander, creating conducive learning experiences for adolescents will
not only lead to academic achievement but also facilitate holistic development
of children and adolescents.
School education also emphasizes more on cognitive development while
neglecting the social-emotional learning and mental health related aspects.
Krathwohl’s taxonomy of affective domain of learning highlights the need for
focusing on the affective/emotional aspects in any learning context. As pointed
out by Kuboja and Ngussa (2015), affective knowledge significantly impacts
our cognitive learning. If the child does not see a “need to learn”, then there will
be lack of involvement and lack of motivation to learn.
There are a number of other challenges faced by our schools which include
lack of infrastructure, lack of facilities, lack of space, student teacher ratio,
insufficient number of teachers, disrespect for teachers, bullying, problem
behavior, low attendance in school, drop out from school, and lack of parent
involvement. Further, it is an exam-driven system with disproportionate focus
on marks. The school curriculum lacks in practical application and relating
to context of the students. Although with the implementation of the National
Policy on Education (2020), learning is expected to have more relevance for
students as it will involve multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches.
These challenges need to be addressed for having successful outcome from a
positive schooling approach. Thus focus needs to be on the following. There
needs to be proper infrastructure in the school, a comprehensive curriculum
242 focusing on the all round development of the child, ensuring quality education,
well-trained teachers having dedication and commitment, appropriate Applications of
disciplinary methods, caring and supportive school staff, motivated students, Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–I
and a visionary leadership. Addressing the mental health concerns of not only the
students, but also that of the teachers and the staff – the entire school community
is important to create a positive and happy school. Parent-school partnership
needs to be strengthened, and there needs to be more collaboration among all
the stakeholders in the school system. Adequate budgetary provisions need to
be ensured and policy changes be made for achieving the goals of positive
schooling.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. The aim of education is not only to impart knowledge, but going
beyond it to develop ____________ and ____________ in children.
2. Principles of equity and inclusive education will help create a positive
schooling climate. True / False
3. Positive schooling focuses on students only, not the entire school.
True / False
4. Name the three dimensions of positive schooling.

14.5 APPLYING POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY TO

SCHOOLS
Children today live in a very complex world dominated by media and
technology. Their lives and interactions are governed through social media.
This has affected their development in all aspects. Digital world is the reality
and changing ways of functioning and interacting is also a reality that cannot
be avoided. However, we need to equip our children with the core values and
strengths that they are resilient enough, can function effectively in the ever
changing world, and thrive in their life. They learn the life values to share and
care, and contribute to humanity.
Positive psychology with its focus on bringing out the best in human beings can
transform the school experience of children and enable them to achieve success
and well-being. Children and adolescents today are facing lots of stress and
anxiety due to the changing nature of the society, increasing use of media and
technology, and decreasing value systems. As reported by research, at least one in
eight adolescents is at risk of mental health problems (Nair, Ganjiwale, Kharod,
et al., 2017). Hence it is crucial that we address this need of ensuring positive
mental health and promote flourishing within the school community (Norrish et.
al., 2013). As Waters (2014) points out, “a school curriculum that incorporates
wellbeing will ideally prevent depression, increase life satisfaction, encourage
social responsibility, promote creativity, foster learning and even enhance
academic achievement”.

14.5.1 Components of Positive Schooling

When we apply positive psychology in the school context, we need to ensure that
the foundation of the positive schooling is based on care, trust, and inclusivity.
Snyder, Lopez, and Pedrotti (2011) have advocated six components of a
243
Applications of positive schoolhouse: foundation level of this house consists of care, trust, and
Positive Psychology respect for diversity; first floor consists of plans, and motivation; the second
floor consists of goals; third floor consists of hope; and the roof indicates
contributions to the society. All these six parts together form the structure of
the positive schoolhouse.
A caring attitude by the teachers towards the students and a sense of trust for
the teachers by the students are important in contributing to good academic
performance as well as psychological benefits (Gilman, Huebner, & Buckman,
2008; Collins, 2001). Care and trust become crucial concerns in case of
children from disadvantaged, and difficult background. There also needs to be
an acceptance of the diversity of attitudes, beliefs and functioning of the child
based on socialization, culture, class, race, ethnicity, age and gender.
Positive schooling approach talks about deciding the goals for each student, i.e.,
the contents of learning and the curriculum. It needs to involve practical learning
experiences, relevant to the sociocultural context of students. To achieve these
learning outcomes or goals, planning is required and the students need to be
motivated for it.
Hope is a very important component of positive schooling that underlies the
aim of education and schooling, i.e., “learning how to learn” (Snyder, Lopez, &
Pedrotti, 2011). Teachers are not there just to pass on the information and facts,
but to develop ideas in students, empowering them for lifelong learning, and
instilling hope in them that they can achieve in life. It is hope only that sustains
life and can do wonders.
Finally positive schooling enables the student to look beyond oneself and
contribute to the greater good, do something meaningful for the community and
society, that can help in the progress of humankind. It is passing the light onto
others where you learn or receive things, get enlightened, and then you give
back to others. It helps one to create meaning in one’s life, leading to authentic
happiness.

14.5.2 Theoretical Models of Positive Schooling

Two important models among others that inform positive schooling are the
Values in Action (VIA) Classification of Strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004),
and the PERMA model of well-being (Seligman, 2011). The VIA classification
can be considered similar to the classification system of mental disorders that
we have such as, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) and the International
Classification of Diseases (ICD). Given the focus of positive psychology on
what is good in people, it becomes natural that we have a classification system
for our psychological strengths. This will help understand the strengths and
virtues in human beings and take steps to cultivate them to achieve success,
happiness and well-being. Such a strengths-based classification system will
also change the traditional way of diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.
Peterson and Seligman (2004) thus proposed a Values in Action classification
system that consists of 24 character strengths organized under six overarching
virtues. These six virtues are Wisdom and knowledge, Courage, Humanity,
Justice, Temperance, and Transcendence.
244
 Table 14.1: Virtues and Character Strengths in VIA Classification Applications of
Positive Psychology
VIRTUES CHARACTER STRENGTHS in Everyday Life–I
Wisdom and Knowledge Creativity, Curiosity, Judgement, Love of
Learning, and Perspective
Courage Bravery, Perseverance, Honesty, and Zest
Humanity Love, Kindness, Social intelligence
Justice Teamwork, Fairness, Leadership
Temperance Forgiveness, Humility, Prudence, and Self-
regulation
Transcendence Appreciation of beauty & excellence, Gratitude,
Hope, Humour, and Spirituality
Schools need to focus on these character strengths to create a positive school
climate as well as make each student feel confident, capable and valuable.
The PERMA model of well-being is given by Seligman (2011) which talks
about five pillars of well-being indicated by the acronym PERMA – Positive
emotions, Engagement, Relationship, Meaning, and Achievement. Positive
schooling needs to focus on creating opportunities for the child to engage in
each of these aspects.
Positive emotions refer to the feel good emotions such as happiness, pride, joy
etc. When children are involved in activities they like, they enjoy and can excel
in those activities also. For example, a child who enjoys singing will put in more
effort in learning singing. that is experienced by the whole school community
in positive schooling.
Engagement refers to being involved and immersed in an activity so much that
you are in a flow and do not notice the time pass by. Mostly, when one uses
one’s strengths while doing an activity, one feels engaged and in flow.
Relationships refer to having positive and authentic relationship with others
which acts as an important source of happiness and fulfillment.
Meaning indicates deriving a meaning and purpose in whatever we do. Living a
meaningful or purposeful life is what makes us go beyond our limited existence
and look at a greater perspective. It instills confidence in the person, motivates
and inspires the person to contribute to something larger than the self.
Achievement indicates excelling in any field/aspect or experiencing a sense of
success. It can be in small things such as completing a story book in two days,
keeping your study desk neat and organized, doing exercise for 20 minutes
daily, or going for a walk for 30 minutes daily. It will depend on the age of the
child. Achieving the set goals helps build confidence, self-esteem and sense of
competence in the child.
Thus PERMA offers a multi-dimensional view of happiness and well-being.
Applied in the context of schooling, it involves taking up of different activities
focusing on feeling good, engaging in meaningful activities, experiencing flow,
forming good relationships, and developing a sense of mastery. All these will
help in creating a healthy and happy climate in schools.
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Applications of 14.5.3 Positive Interventions
Positive Psychology
In a review study, Devi and Patra (2020) have highlighted the importance of
school-based positive psychology interventions that aim at promoting mental
health among the adolescents. Keyes (2002) points out the need for programs
focusing on building the positive factors in addition to removal of negative
factors. Thus positive psychology interventions (PPIs) aim at promoting positive
behavior among students, enhancing their strengths, and helping them flourish.
It enhances their resilience, builds positive attributes, and promotes their
cognitive-social-emotional skills. The emphasis needs to be on developing the
‘whole student’ through social, emotional, moral and intellectual development
(Noddings, 1995; Palmer, 2003; Cain & Carnellor, 2008).
Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs) are characterised as “programs,
practices, treatment methods, or activities aimed at cultivating positive
feelings, cognition, and behaviour” (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). Examples of
programmes that have been used effectively for meeting the various objectives
of positive schooling include “Bounce Back” programme on resilience (Noble
& McGrath, 2008); Hope-based intervention programme (Marques, Lopez, &
Pais-Ribeiro, 2011); Positive psychology at school, a school-based intervention
programme (Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2013); The Happy Schools Project by
the UNESCO in Bangkok (UNESCO, 2016); Improving positive emotions
programme (Sanghani, Upadhyay & Sharma, 2013); Promotion of mental health
and psychological well-being programme of NIMHANS (Vranda, 2015); and
Happiness curriculum programme by the Government of Delhi.
The ‘Happiness Curriculum’, launched by the Government of Delhi in July
2018 for the students of Nursery to Class 8th in the government schools,
focuses on a holistic education. The curriculum involves a “happiness period”
of 45 minutes and consists of four parts such as Mindfulness, Stories, Activities
and Expression. Studies report satisfaction with the Happiness Curriculum by
majority of students, teachers as well as parents (Devi & Patra, 2020). Khanna
(2016) has also studied positive psychological interventions including gratitude,
character strengths and stress management among Indian school students.
Majority of the intervention programmes focus on development of character
strengths and enhancement of well-being among students and to some extent
among teachers. However, as the concept of positive schooling indicates, a
whole school approach focusing on creating a positive culture and positive
climate in the entire school community needs to be followed, that will facilitate
functioning of all school staff and students and their well-being.
The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) of
USA is a school-wide programme which advocates for a systemic social and
emotional learning (SEL) along with the academic component across all grades
from kindergarten to high school. It focuses on Goleman’s five competencies
of emotional intelligence such as self awareness, self management, social
awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making. The SEL
programme involves the entire school community to build a caring and
supportive community in which children can thrive and achieve success.

246
 Applications of
Self Assessment Questions 2 Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–I
1. What are the six components of a positive schoolhouse ?
2. Name the six virtues in the VIA classification.
3. Who was the target group for the Happiness Curriculum by the
Government of Delhi?
4. What are the five competencies proposed by Goleman?

14.6 POSITIVE PARENTING

Parents always try to give their best for the proper development of their children.
They want their child to be happy, healthy, and be successful. However, along
with having the intention to see our children flourish, it is also important to
know the strategies and know-how of achieving that goal. Since each child
is uniquely placed in the particular sociocultural context, parenting practices
and methods need to take cognizance of these. However, there are common
grounds and principles, which need to be ensured for parenting to be effective
and help children reach their optimum development and thrive in their life.
As stated by Patra (2022), “the larger goals of parenting are usually neglected
in the competitive world where every parent wants their child to be the best
amongst others, not the best of herself/himself. As a result, the child may gain
wide knowledge, acquire various skills, achieve a lot, but may not develop self-
awareness, self-connection and self-realization that will give a true purpose to
one’s life.”
Positive parenting refers to the use of positive psychology principles and
techniques in child rearing practices. Thus instead of focusing on what is wrong
in the child, it emphasizes what is right and good in the child. It also focuses
on the parents themselves – being self-aware, being mindful, and learning to
see the larger goal of parenting. Listening to the child, understanding the needs
of the child and being a good role model will help the child feel loved and
confident.
According to Seay et al. (2014, p.207), positive parenting is the continual
relationship of a parent(s) and a child or children that includes caring, teaching,
leading, communicating, and providing for the needs of a child consistently
and unconditionally. Thus it involves nurturing the child, and enabling the
acquisition of skills, development of potentials, empowering and thriving
of them. This requires a balanced approach to cater to their needs and at the
same time making them learn a disciplined way of functioning and good value
system.
Two main issues in parenting involves how demanding and how responsive
the parents are towards the child. This intersection between demandingness
and responsiveness gives rise to four parenting styles namely, authoritarian,
authoritative/democratic, permissive, and negligent/indifferent parenting
(Baumrind, 1971; Maccoby & Martin, 1983).

247
Applications of Table 14.2: Four Parenting Styles
Positive Psychology
HIGH CONTROL LOW CONTROL
AUTHORITATIVE PERMISSIVE
Firm & consistent control Frequent expression of
warmth & affection
Monitor & impart clear Low enforcement of rules
standards for their & authority
children’s conduct
Give priority to child’s High acceptance
needs & abilities
Implying age appropriate Taking the role of friend
maturity demands rather than parent
HIGH Encourage children to be Allow the child to make
RESPONSIVENESS independent their own decisions
Attentive Minimal punishment
Forgiving
Offering democratic
climate
AUTHORITARIAN NEGLIGENT
Expecting strict, Inattentive behaviour
unquestioned obedience
to parental authority
Not ready to accept Neglecting the child
child’s individuality
LOW Disobedience is dealt Little interaction with the
RESONSIVENESS by forceful & punitive child
discipline
Little communication
between parent & child
Highly directive
behaviour
Source: Patra, S. (2021). Unit 12 Positive Childhood. BPCG 175: Psychology for Living, Bachelors
Degree Programme, IGNOU, New Delhi.

Authoritative parenting style has been found to be the most effective one as it
brings in a positive approach to parenting practice and parent-child relationship.
It reflects a democratic approach towards parenting and considers children as
individuals in their own right. Such parents exude warmth along with firm
discipline, they guide as well as provide instruction, set limits as well as provide
freedom to their children. They are caring, supportive and convey the feeling of
acceptance to the child. They value their children for who they are, not for what
they lack or achieve. They also have open and clear communication with their
children without judging. They exhibit mindfulness in their parenting behavior
and interaction with the child.

248
14.6.1 Mindfulness in Parenting Applications of
Positive Psychology
Parenting is a challenging task and can be a stressful experience in the background in Everyday Life–I
of various factors such as lack of support, dual working families, competitive
world, influence of social media on the young generation, and so on. This
requires that we bring in a mindfulness approach to the parent-child relationship
that will enable the parents to focus on themselves and their approach to child-
rearing and also help realize the goals of parenting by developing the child into
a good human being (Patra, 2022). Mindfulness has the potential to enhance the
family system and interaction patterns (Dumas, 2005). Being mindful helps the
parent in reducing stress, more aware of the child’s needs, suspend judgement
at the moment, focus on parent-child relationship itself, and become aware of
child’s well-being (Patra, 2021).
Mindfulness refers to awareness of any object, stimulus or experience in the
present moment without passing any judgment on it. As stated by Kabat-Zinn
(2003, p.145), mindfulness refers to the moment-to-moment awareness that
occurs when we pay attention, on purpose, in the present moment, and with
a non-judgmental attitude towards any stimulus/ experience. Usually, we are
not aware of our thoughts, emotions and how they impact our behavior in the
present moment. There is a habitual pattern, which we may not notice in a
given situation. We function in an autopilot mode. Parents need to notice their
own thoughts and emotions while interacting with their child so that they can
regulate their behavior for an effective response rather than reacting to the child.
Mindfulness helps one to engage in self-regulation (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell
2007).
Mindful parenting is defined as parents’ abilities to pay attention to their
child and their parenting in a way that is intentional, present-centered, and
nonjudgmental (Kabat-Zinn & Kabat-Zinn, 1997). A model of mindful
parenting developed by Duncan, Coatsworth & Greenberg (2009) focuses on
mindfulness in the social context of the parent-child relationship. It included the
following five dimensions of mindful parenting: (a) listening with full attention;
(b) nonjudgmental acceptance of self and child; (c) emotional awareness of self
and child; (d) self-regulation in the parenting relationship; and (e) compassion
for self and child. Various studies have pointed out the benefits of mindful
parenting (Sondhi, 2017; Sharma & Singh, 2016; Bawa et. a., 2015; and Kang
et al., 2018).
Parents with an authoritative or democratic style of parenting reflect mindfulness
in their approach. They take cognizance of their own thoughts and emotions in
the specific situation, empathize with the child’s needs, and take action keeping
in mind the larger parenting goals. For instance, when the child throws out a
tantrum when visiting a shopping mall, the parent needs to be first aware of her
emotions in the situation, regulate them, and be clear in her approach to child.
The parent needs to be firm but loving and understanding towards the child
throughout.

249
Applications of
Positive Psychology 14.7 WAYS TO PRACTICE POSITIVE
PARENTING
As discussed in the earlier sections, a democratic approach to parenting reflects
the best style of parenting. It consists of various skills that help create a positive
family atmosphere in which children can learn optimally and achieve their
potentials. It ensures a positive parent-child relationship which makes the
child self-confident and flourish. Positive parenting focuses on the care and
development of both the child as well as the parent. Here we discuss five main
aspects of positive parenting that will help one to practice positive parenting.
• Safe and Stimulating Environment: Create a safe base for the child in
which they can explore, learn and grow. Children need to feel secure so that
they can develop properly. A secure attachment and strong emotional bonds
will help the child deal with any type of developmental challenges. Positive
parenting also ensures to provide such an environment that is stimulating
enough for the optimal development of the child.
• Realistic Expectations: Parents need to have realistic expectations from
their child. It is important to remember that children have their own life and
they are not mere extensions of parents. As Kahlil Gibran says,
Your children are not your children
They are the sons and daughters of life’s longing for itself
They come through you but not from you
And though they are with you yet they belong not to you.
Further, each child is different and influenced by the context, both
immediate and larger context in which they live. The ecological theory of
Bronfenbrenner (1977), later revised as Bioecological model (Bronfenbrenner
& Morris, 2006) highlights the influence of multiple systems of surrounding
environment on the child’s development. The contexts of family, school,
neighbourhood, community, society and nation, with their laws, customs, and
value system, social media and digital world, technological advancements
etc. – affect the child development and functioning. Later on, he focused
on the developmental processes experienced by the individual across the
developmental stages. Hence parents need to understand the child in the
context of dynamic interaction of these environments and developmental
processes, and have realistic expectations.
• Positive Discipline: Positive parenting does not use discipline in the
commonly used sense, that is, it does not use it in a negative sense such as
shouting, physical punishment, threatening, shaming, blaming etc. Rather,
it uses positive discipline which includes clear and open communication,
behaving in an assertive manner, and at the same time understanding
the needs of the child and using positive reinforcement. Parents exhibit
mindfulness in listening to their child and also being aware of the impact
of child’s behavior on themselves. Positive discipline as the name suggests,
emphasizes the positive aspects of behavior. It states that there is no bad
child, only bad behavior and good behavior. Thus it clearly outlines the
good and appropriate behaviours for the child and also the consequences
250
 for showing good or bad behavior. It combines firmness with loving and Applications of
empathetic behaviour towards the child. Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–I
• Self Care: The main focus in parenting is usually the child. However, parents
also deserve the focus equally. Parents need to take care of themselves so
that they can be self-aware and regulate their emotions. It will also help them
be empathetic, kind and compassionate towards their own self. Parenting is
a round the clock responsibility. Parents will always do their best to serve
their child’s interests. They need to take a break for their own sake so that
they can meet their child’s needs better.
Parenting can be considered as a full time job. It is definitely a very challenging
experience. However, the use of positive parenting can help us make it a
satisfying and fulfilling experience rather than being a stressful one. Positive
parenting makes the child feel loved, respected and valued. It helps the parents
to be sensitive, mindful, and responsive to the parent-child relationship. It can
reduce behavioural problems in the child, develop the necessary skills in the
child for self-regulation, makes the child responsible, self-confident, and thrive
in life.
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. The four parenting styles are based on which two dimensions ?
2. Which parenting style is considered as a positive parenting style ?
3. Mindfulness helps one to engage in auto-pilot mode of thinking.
True / False.
4. The ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner emphasizes on the context of
the child affecting development. True / False.

14.8 LET US SUM UP

The present unit focused on two key aspects in a child’s life, that is, parents and
teachers – how these need to be informed by a positive psychology approach
so that we achieve the ultimate goals of parenting and teaching. The meaning
and components of positive schooling and positive parenting were described.
You also learned about the models of well-being that influence the application
of positive psychology in the school context. Mindfulness as an important
approach to parenting was described. Further, you learned about various aspects
in the practice of positive parenting.

14.9 KEY WORDS

Positive Schooling aims at creating a positive school climate where children
feel safe, included, and accepted, and it actively promotes positive behaviours
and interactions (Deb, 2018).
PERMA Model of Well-being describes well-being in terms of five pillars such
as Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationship, Meaning, and Achievement.
Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs) aim at promoting positive behavior
among students, enhancing their strengths, and helping them flourish.
251
Applications of CASEL (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning) of
Positive Psychology USA is a school-wide programme which advocates for a systemic social and
emotional learning (SEL) along with the academic component across all grades
from kindergarten to high school.
Positive Parenting refers to the use of positive psychology principles and
techniques in child rearing practices which focuses on the strengths of the
child.
Authoritarian Parenting is characterized by highly directive behaviour from
the parents, parental expectations of strict compliance from the child and
punitive discipline.
Authoritative Parenting refers to being consistent and firm in their disciplinary
behaviour and creating a democratic climate in the process of child-rearing.
Mindfulness refers to the moment-to-moment awareness that occurs when we
pay attention, on purpose, in the present moment, and with a non-judgmental
attitude towards any stimulus/ experience
Mindful Parenting is defined as parents’ abilities to pay attention to their
child and their parenting in a way that is intentional, present-centered, and
nonjudgmental (Kabat-Zinn & Kabat-Zinn, 1997).

14.10 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. character and wisdom
2. True
3. False
4. Physical, psychological, and socio-emotional
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. The six components of a positive schoolhouse are (a) care, trust, respect for
diversity, (b) plans, (c) motivation, (d) goals, (e) hope, and (f) contributions
to the society.
2. The six virtues are Wisdom and knowledge, Courage, Humanity, Justice,
Temperance, and Transcendence.
3. students of Nursery to Class 8th in the government schools of Delhi
4. self awareness, self management, social awareness, relationship skills, and
responsible decision-making
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 3
1. demandingness and responsiveness
2. authoritative parenting style
252
3. False Applications of
Positive Psychology
4. True in Everyday Life–I

14.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Explain the challenges in Indian school system and discuss how they can be
overcome to bring aspects of positive schooling.
2. Discuss the theoretical models of well-being that explain positive
schooling.
3. Discuss the positive interventions that can help in creating positive behavior
and positive school climate.
4. Explain the concept of positive parenting in the light of the challenges to
parenting in the modern age.
5. Discuss the ways to practice positive parenting.

14.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

READINGS
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development. American psychologist, 32(7), 513.
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The Bioecological Model of
Human Development. In R. M. Lerner & W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of child
psychology: Theoretical models of human development (pp. 793–828). John
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Bawa, F. L., Mercer, S. W., Atherton, R. J., Clague, F., Keen, A., Scott, N.
W., & Bond, C. M. (2015). Does mindfulness improve outcomes in patients
with chronic pain? Systematic review and meta-analysis. The British Journal
of General Practice, 65(635), e387–e400. doi:10.3399/bjgp15X685297
PMID:26009534
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical
foundations and evi- dence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4),
211–237. doi:10.1080/10478400701598298
Cain, G., & Carnellor, Y. (2008). ‘Roots of empathy’: A research study on
its impact on teachers in Western Australia. Journal of Student Wellbeing, 2,
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Devi & Patra, (2020a). Review of School Based Positive Psychology
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mindful parenting: Implications for parent-child relationships and prevention
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Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past,
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mindfulness training intervention for early adolescents. Journal of School
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Khanna, P. (2016). Validation of Positive Psychological Interventions for
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Kuboja, J.M., & Ngussa, B.M. (2015). Affective Learning and Cognitive Applications of
Skills Improvement: Experience of Selected Schools in Arusha, Tanzania. Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–I
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Personality, and Social Development.
Marques, S., Lopez, S., & Pais-Ribeiro, K. (2011). Building hope for the future:
A program to foster strengths in middle-school students. Journal of Happiness
Studies, 12, 139–152.
Nair, S., Ganjiwale, J., Kharod, N., Varma, J. &Nimbalkar, S.M. (2017).
Epidemiological survey of mental health in adolescent school children of
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sites/default/files/EHWB.pdf
Noble, T., & McGrath, H. (2008). The positive educational practices framework:
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Noddings, N. (1995). A morally defensible mission for schools in the twenty
first century. The Phi Delta Kappan, 76, 365–368.
Norrish, J. M., Williams, P., O’Connor, M., & Robinson, J. (2013). An applied
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Palmer, P. (2003). Teaching with heart and soul: Reflections on spirituality in
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 Applications of
UNIT 15 APPLICATIONS OF POSITIVE Positive Psychology
PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE–II* in Everyday Life–I

Structure
15.1 Learning Objectives
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Close Relationships
15.3.1 Understanding Love

15.3.2 Understanding Adult Attachment Security

15.3.3 Understanding Friendships

15.4 Applying Positive Psychology in Close Relationships

15.5 Context of Family
15.6 Applying Positive Psychology in the Family Context
15.7 Concept of Aging
15.8 Applying Positive Psychology for Successful Aging
15.9 Let Us Sum Up
15.10 Key Words
15.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
15.12 Unit End Questions
15.13 References
15.14 Suggested Readings

15.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through the Unit, you will be able to:
• Describe the concept and constitution of close relationships and family;
• Learn to apply positive psychology constructs in enhancing close
relationships and in the family context;
• Explain the concept of aging and successful aging; and
• Learn to apply positive psychology principles for positive aging.

15.2 INTRODUCTION
Ramya and Ajay had to do work from home due to the COVID 19 pandemic.
Initially they were quite excited that they would be able to spend more time
together with their 4-year old child as a family. However, working from home
in reality did not have any fixed work timings. They did not have much privacy
to work in peace, had to manage household tasks, and also attend their kid’s
257
*
Sandra Roshni Monteiro, Faculty of Psychology, GITAM (Deemed to be University), Hyderabad
Applications of online classes as per the school’s instructions. Staying together 24*7 turned
Positive Psychology into bickering and feelings that one was contributing to home chores more
than the other. One weekend, Ramya and Ajay decided that they need to work
things out. They talked for hours and figured out a routine for themselves. In
the process, they realised that they were both doing things that the other was
not acknowledging. While things still do get chaotic for them sometimes, they
remember to support and thank each other for the little things they do. Their
mood would instantly change and would willingly help out each other.
The above scenario reflects the application of concepts in positive psychology.
Amidst all the challenges, Ramya and Ajay maintained a positive outlook,
communicated with each other about their feelings, and expressed gratitude for
each others’ presence and help. Positive psychology is the science that builds
on the premise that human beings have the potential and strengths to deal with
adversities and overlook shortcomings. Applied positive psychology makes
use of the principles and concepts of positive psychology in various aspects of
our life. It facilitates optimal functioning in terms of better mental status and
physical health through positive psychology research.
In the present Unit, we will discuss about the applications of positive psychology
in achieving flourishing relationships, a harmonious family, and in successful
aging.

15.3 CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS

Wife: Look I bought a new pair of jeans, isn’t it nice?
Husband: You bought another one! How you waste our hard earned money!
Wife: What about the useless things you spend money on? It’s my money too. I
will spend the way I like it. It was stupid of me to show it to you. You wouldn’t
have noticed it anyway.
Just like in the above situation, we tend to forego appreciation and almost
automatically criticise each other in long spanned relationships. It is a fact that
our close relationships hold a very high place in our life. If you feel supported
in your relationships, you tend to feel or do well in other areas of your life
too. Reciprocally, if you feel unhappy in your relationship, the frustration
spills over in other domains of life. The importance of relationships has been
aptly pointed out by Dr. Martin Seligman in his model of PERMA (Positive
emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, Accomplishments) that
explained contributors of flourishing in humans (Seligman, 2002). Precisely
so, Dr. Christopher Peterson too, described the foundational basis of positive
psychology in three simple words: “Other people matter”.
It is a common notion that affiliation oriented societies would expect lower
divorced rates or languished marriages. Is that the reality, though? More
frequently than not, we blame fate/chance/luck in matters of relationship in
case of marital disharmony. For instance, if you would like to score well in your
exams, would studying once in six month be enough? Like any other area of our
life where we desire to be successful, relationships too shall flourish if we put
in consistent efforts.
258
How do we distinguish close and casual relationships? Close relationships are Applications of
characterized by high levels of: Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–II
• Trust: no threat felt with self disclosure
• Knowledge: mutual understanding of each other’s preferences
• Care: concern and responsibility for each other
• Interdependence: intertwined lives
• Commitment: dedication towards the relationship during good and bad
times
• Intimacy: emotional connection and sharing of thoughts, feelings, etc.
Close relationships can further be understood in two ways: platonic friendships
versus romantic relationships; where the latter is marked by sex and passion,
and typically involves attachment to one person at a time.
In the following sections we will discuss close relationships by understanding
love, attachment, and friendships.

15.3.1 Understanding Love

• Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
A good index of positive functioning in romantically inclined couples
was postulated by Sternberg in the Triangular Theory of Love (Sternberg,
1986). According to this theory, a relationship has three major components:
intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment. A number of combinations
of these components gives rise to different experiences (eg. romantic love
is composed of passion and intimacy), different importance levels (eg.
admiration for a successful person in your community—infatuation), in
different points in time of our life (eg. a young adult looking for a partner—
companionate love). When all the components are expressed, it composes
an ideal relationship, the absence of which may result in an unsatisfactory
relationship.

Fig. 15.1: Types of Love according to Triangular theory of love

https://psych2go.net/according-sternbergs-love-theory-three-components-love-commitment-passion-
intimacy/
259
Applications of • Lee’s Theory of Love
Positive Psychology
Lee’s (1977) understanding of love styles was compared to a color wheel,
in which love existed in many styles such as primary, secondary, and even
tertiary. There are three primary styles: Eros (passionate, romantic love),
Ludus (playful love), Storge (friendship love). The secondary styles are
a combination of two primary styles: Pragma (practical, rational love; a
combination of Storge and Ludus), Mania (obsessive or addictive love;
a combination of Eros and Ludus), and Agape (altruistic/selfless or
unconditional love; a combination of Eros and Storge). A comprehensive
summary of love styles and their characteristics can be referred to in Table
15.1 below.
Table 15.1: Love styles and their characteristics (Lee, 1977)

Source: (Raffagnino & Puddu, 2018)

Based on Lee’s theory of love, The Love Attitude Scale was developed to
assess different love styles among couples (Hendrick & Hendrick, 1986). This
questionnaire is predictive of satisfaction and relational involvement. It is a
useful map for psychologists to understand the areas of distress in couples.

15.3.2 Understanding Adult Attachment Security

Attachment is described as a psychological connectedness between human
beings (Bowlby, 1979). It has four main characteristics: (a) maintaining
proximity with the person, (b) feeling safe with the person, (c) returning for
security to the person, and (d) anxiety in the absence of the person. Observations
of Ainsworth (1979) in infant caregiver relationship correlate with attachment
styles in adults—secure, avoidant, and fearful avoidant. On similar lines, Hazan
and Shaver (1987) explored attachment in romantic relationships. It was also
suggested that adult relationships work just like children-caregiver relationship,
and these childhood representations are reflected in the choice of relational
experiences.
Brennan, Clark & Shaver (1998) findings suggest that there are two elementary
260 dimensions of adult attachment (Refer to Fig. 15.2 below). One dimension is
‘attachment related anxiety’ and the other is ‘attachment related avoidance’. Applications of
High scorers in case of anxiety prone attachment are typically worried about Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–II
responsiveness, availability, and attentiveness of their partner. Low scorers
tend to be secure about their partner’s responsiveness. Similarly, avoidant type
attachment is bipolar indicating that high scorers are poorly adjusted and aloof,
compared to low scorers who enjoy the closeness of relationships. An individual
scoring low on both these dimensions would be identified as a secure adult in
relationships.

Fig. 15.2: Adult attachment styles (Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998)
http://labs.psychology.illinois.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htm

15.3.3 Understanding Friendships

Friendship is a “voluntary interdependence between two persons over time that is
intended to facilitate socio-emotional goals of the participants, and may involve
varying types and degrees of companionship, intimacy, affection and mutual
assistance” (Hays, 1988). Friends are a part of our micro system that is based
on mutual respect, appreciation and liking. The social support hypothesis also
recognizes the protective effect of supportive interactions in the face of stress.
Friendships are quite dynamic in nature, and may be short lived too. However,
the proximity or emotional intimacy with friends depends upon our need for
emotional connection/emotional loneliness (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008); it also
highlights the two benchmarks that qualify for friendship: quality (degree of
intimacy) and conflict (number of psychologically distressing situations).
Oswald (2017) documented four important factors that help to maintain
friendships:
• Emphatic happiness— Sharing of good news or positive events
• Availability of social support
• Non-judgemental acceptance
• Quality and quantity of time spent in company
Several studies have pointed out that these qualities help to enhance happiness
(Mikulincer & Shaver, 2013), satisfaction and wellbeing (Braithwaite&Holt-
Lunstad, 2017), feelings of trust (Keltner et al. 2018). 261
Applications of
Self Assessment Questions 1
Positive Psychology
1. What does positive psychotherapy aim at?
2. What does PERMA stands for?
3. Differentiate between close and casual relationships.
4. What are the three components of Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of
Love?
5. What are the three primary styles of love in Lee’s theory of love?
6. What are the major types of attachment styles found in adults?

15.4 APPLYING POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN

CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS
The various concepts of positive psychology that we have studied in earlier
units can be applied in the context of close relationships to help it thrive. Some
of the strategies to enhance our close relationships using positive psychology
constructs are described below.
(1) Spotting Strengths
When you are angry with a person, what are the usual things that come to your
mind about that person? Phrases like “She is always indecisive”, and “He is
always temperamental”, and so on. Well, we are well versed with weakness
spotting or problem spotting. Positive psychology urges us to practice the
contrary, i.e. to spot strengths in our relationships. Linley (2008) has defined
strength as ‘‘a pre-existing capacity for a particular way of behaving, thinking,
or feeling that is authentic and energizing to the user, and enables optimal
functioning, development and performance.’’ Kashdan et al (2018) in their
research study involving couples in romantic relationships reported that partner
strength perceptions predicted better daily relationship satisfaction.
Box 1: Tips to help Strength Spotting
• Listen for passion and energy while they talk about things that excite
them.
• Elicit strengths by asking: What are you good at? What are your
aspirations? How did you reach so far in life?
• Observe energy and engagement in patterns of success while discussing
a project or a household task.
• Look for strength within: When you notice your own strengths, it is
more likely you would notice others’ strengths too.
(2) Strengths and Fulfilled Dreams Genogram
Adapted from the family genogram technique (McGoldrick and Gerson, 1985), this
technique is a visual diagram of significant relationships. It reconstructs positive
characteristics and achievements. This helps to materialise the unacknowledged
262
traits and past experiences. Further, it may be used constructively in framing Applications of
positive inquiry such as: How would you use your strength to resolve this issue? Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–II
(Kauffman & Silberman, 2009). Cook and Poulsen (2011) have additionally
suggested the use of photographs in the genogram method for it to be a more
dynamic and enriching experience for the couples. Figure 15.3 below provides
an example of strengths and fulfilled dreams genogram.

Fig. 15.3: Strengths and Fulfilled Dreams Genogram

(Adapted from Perloiro, Neto, and Marujo, 2010)

(3) The Sound Relationship House

The Sound Relationship House is a metaphorical house of a secure relationship.
Based on decades of research on divorced and sustained marriages, Dr. John
Gottman and Dr. Julie Schwartz Gottman developed the Gottman model (2013).
They spotted the Four Apocalyptic Horses (a Biblical reference) of marriage
that could destruct a marriage. They are
• Criticism
• Defensiveness
• Contempt
Stonewalling, or withdrawing from interaction
These factors are accountable for an obstructed communication pattern which
has to be negated to achieve a flourishing relationship.
The Sound Relationship House (Fig. 15.4) helps to ascertain a developable skill
essential to a healthy relationship. Each floor of the house gradually builds into
a concrete structure symbolic of a flourishing relationship.

263
Applications of
Positive Psychology

Fig. 15.4: Gottman’s Sound Relationship House

(Source: McNulty, 2013)
https://www.gottman.com/blog/an-introduction-to-the-gottman-method-of-relationship-therapy/

Gottman also categorized marital conflict into two kinds: (a) resolvable conflicts,
which eventually get solved over time, and (b) perpetual conflicts, which are the
ones that always exist and require crisis management. Positive therapy sourced
on this concept was seen to be effective in improving marital adjustment and
couples’ intimacy in 16 couples who were part of a semi experimental study
(Davoodvandi, Nejad, and Farzad , 2018). Similar effectiveness of this therapy
was reported in a study of 106 gay and lesbian couples (Garanzini et. al.,
2017).
(4) Emotional Bank Account
Centred on the Gottman Relationship model described above, the emotional
bank account is a good exercise for couples to work on their intimacy, conflicts,
and emotional distance. This system is identical to a financial bank based on
deposits and withdrawal. Imagine a scenario where your spouse gets hurt
accidentally. You can do one of the two things, turn towards or turn away.
Turning towards may be as simple as acknowledging, “Oh! I am sorry you
got hurt, does it pain?” This is simple emotional connection with the partner
(making a deposit). On the other hand, just ignoring it altogether is taking away
the chance to make an emotional connection (withdrawal). Just like reality, a
zero balance bank account can make one feel insecure and lonely, and a negative
one is sign of danger. A general rule of thumb is to have at least 5 positive
interactions to 1 negative reaction during a conflict and 20:1 in everyday life.
This way the benefit of doubt will tend to outweigh the negative approach to
conflict.
264
 Applications of
Invest in your Emotional Bank
Positive Psychology
• Be mindful of each others’ needs in Everyday Life–II

• Express appreciation for small things and big

• Talk about your stress
• Don’t try to solve the problem; rather understand it
• Show physical gestures of affection

15.5 CONTEXT OF FAMILY

Alok and Ruhani live in a family of six comprising of a younger sister, Alok’s
parents, and Ruhani’s widowed mother. Both of them financially and tangibly
contributed to manage the house. One day Alok had an accident and was advised
bed rest for at least 6 months for his leg to recover. Alok’s office could not
accommodate his medical leave for more than a month and was suggested to
go without pay beyond that period. This was a difficult situation for the family.
However, Ruhani stepped up and said that she would manage the household
expenses by taking tuitions in the evening. Alok’s parents offered a portion of
their pension. Ruhani’s mother offered to look after Alok’s medical needs. His
younger sister offered to help with the household chores and any work that Alok
used to take care of.
Each family differs in terms of structure, rules, values, language, cultural factors,
and multigenerational patterns. In the above example, we observe a family who
stepped up for each other and concentrated on their strengths to overcome the
adversity. Family dynamics have often been observed in several Bollywood
movies like Dil Dhadakne Do, English Vinglish, etc. The goals of positive
psychology in this context may be understood in a similar way, i.e. improve the
psychological home environment, enhance flexibility and acceptance among
members, facilitate and improve communication, and strengthen the family
systems by working on what’s strong and not by fixing what’s wrong.
What is Family-centred Positive Psychology?
• Therapy that is concerned with the process and outcomes
• Mobilizes family strengths and resources
• Needs are determined by family than professional
• Emphatic on building social support network
• Acquisition of new skills and competencies through professionals
“Familism”, a term used by Bardis (1959) and Sabogal et. al. (1987) connotes
a strong identification with nuclear and extended kin enmeshed with high
cooperation and affiliation. Familism typically consists of social norms, personal
attitudes, and behaviour measured by the extent of endorsement of its central
components (Campos, Ullman, Aguilera, & Dunkel Schetter, 2014) which are:

265
Applications of • A sense of responsibility towards the family
Positive Psychology
• Primary emotional support sourced in family
• Interconnectedness among family members
• Considering the opinion of family members during important decisions
• Being considerate of own behaviour to maintain family honour
• Willingly choosing family preferences over individual preferences
These typical features of familism is quite prevalent among collectivistic cultures
such as Indian, Latino, and other Asian cultures that are dominantly characterized
by their intimacy among family members, living in the same household, sharing
finance, considering work choices, creating a balance between peer and family
time, and mainly prioritising family over self (Schwartz et al., 2010; Yeh &
Bedford, 2003). It may seem that family centrism may lead to self negligence
but studies conducted (Schwartz et al, 2010; Corona, Campus, & Chen, 2017)
found otherwise. These studies emphasised upon the value of familism and its
association with wellbeing and its role in buffering stress.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Which of the techniques of applied positive psychology for
flourishing relationships is based on Gottman’s research studies on
married couples?
2. What is “Familism”?
3. What is emotional bank account?

15.6 APPLYING POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN

THE FAMILY CONTEXT
(1) Child Parent Relationship
Child is an integral part of family and even so in family centred positive
psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). This derivation is best taken
up from a framework of ecological systems, i.e. the environment and contexts
within which individuals function.
Think about your first point of contact for socializing. It is usually your home
and your school. This is the microsystem. The interactions between your
parents, teachers, and your peer group comprise of the bidirectional influences
of the mesosystem. These interconnections affect relationships, communication
patterns of the child. Now think of the larger picture, have you ever had to cancel
a vacation plan because of your mom’s/dad’s work duties? You are not directly
related to your parent’s work environment, yet you were affected by it. This is
the influence of the exosystem. Now think of a time when the government made
corporal punishments in school a crime. This policy provided relief to millions
of students being cruelly punished. The influence of the government or customs
around us makes up the macrosystem. Therefore, now you understand that
things that do not involve you directly in your daily life can still be pervasive
266 (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). It is imperative to introduce early interventions for
children and adolescents to set up a positive life trajectory (Magyar-Moe et al., Applications of
2015; Peterson & Park, 2003). Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–II
Positive education interventions like mindfulness, multicomponent positive
psychological interventions, well-being, resilience, strengths, positive writing,
body image, acts of kindness, etc. will teach children ways to increase their
positive cognition, emotions, and behaviours in ways that enhance well-being
whilst also helping students to cope with emotional concerns, relationship
difficulties, and adversity (Owens & Waters, 2020).
While developing any interventions for children and adolescents’ one must be
mindful of their developmental needs and maturity, i.e. positive characteristics
like gratitude and empathy might not be comprehensible for 6 to 8 years of age
(Froh et al, 2007). Also, their brains are very plastic in nature (adaptive) and the
intensity or frequency of intervention is not comparable with the interventions
meant for adults. Moreover, any intervention provided to children should be
through a designated medium and not self guided in nature.
(2) Capitalization on a Positive Event
Just like how you would receive dividends in a share whose value has increased,
celebrating a positive event is expected to increase the inter and intra personal
dividends yielded (Langston, 1994). The broaden and build theory explains
this phenomenon as maximising on positive affect, increasing the value and
strengthening the bond with the person. It has been noted that the person sharing
genuine positive news feels an abundance of positive emotions as a result of the
process (Vasquez, Lee, & Conoley, 2012), even if the person is a stranger (Ilies,
Keeney, & Scott, 2011). This also helps in reshaping communication styles in
families where automatic response to any kind of event may be passive, neutral,
or sometimes negative (Gable, Reis, Impett, & Asher, 2004). Capitalization
helps to focus on interpreting the positive event in a unique and a meaningful
manner giving a sense of privilege to the family member.
Example of positive capitalization:
Son: I got a first prize for my school debate competition, and I have been
chosen to represent my school at a national level with 50 participating
schools. I am nervous, I am good here, doesn’t mean I’ll be good there.
Father: It doesn’t matter how you perform, I’ll be proud of you
(unintentionally ignoring the positive event, while showing unconditional
love)
Or
Father: I am so happy you came first! I am so proud of you. Let’s celebrate
this tonight at your favourite pizzeria (capitalization on a positive event).
We can also talk about things that can make you less nervous.
(3) Interjections
This method may also be called triangulation, or in other words, a therapist,
or sometimes another family member too could interject and rephrase certain
situations.
267
Applications of Mom: These teenagers nowadays hardly have time for their parents. Look at
Positive Psychology Rishi, he’s busy in college classes, comes home and is off for his tuitions. And
the rest of the time, he is on the phone always. I don’t remember the last time
we sat and ate together...
Dad: It sounds like he doesn’t get much time at home...and that you miss
spending time with him, isn’t it?
Here, the father acts as a neutral interjector who demonstrates the situation with
attentiveness and minimal biasness, yet addressing the need of the mother. It
can be called a diplomatic way of dealing with a situation that is lengthy in its
problem focus. This interruption of a probably damaging train of thought is
preventive of a pent up conflict.
(6) Catching a Virtue
This approach commands awareness and recognition of positive qualities by the
family members especially useful in enhancing prosocial behaviour as well as
the relationship between a child and parent (Johnson, McDonnell, Holzwarth, &
Hunter, 2004; Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). Ideally if this exercise
is repeated twice or thrice a day, it reinforces the virtue and the child is likely
to repeat the behaviour with more frequency. Using positive techniques with
elementary-aged children, it was found that the intervention is both effective
for the participants and enthusiastically received by the children’s families
(Spaventa-Vancil & Conoley, 2012).

15.7 CONCEPT OF AGING

Last scene of all,
That ends this strange eventful history,
Is second childishness and mere oblivion;
Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything.
- William Shakespeare (All the World’s a Stage)
Shakespeare in his very famous monologue described old age as a drab picture
of unknowingness and silliness with almost nothing exciting to enjoy. Even
the Philosopher’s stone in Harry Potter was sought to make an elixir that made
one youthful forever, not “old” forever. Do you also associate old age with an
age or a phase of dependency, morbidity, and cognitive infirmity—everything
unwanted, right?
You must have observed people around you, there are a few people above 60
who are fit, active, and about like a 40 year old, while there are a few who tend
to feel like 60 while being 40. Clearly, age is not limited to chronology. Age,
too, can be understood as a biopsychosocial process.
Meaning and Types of Aging
From a biological perspective, aging is deterioration at the cellular and
molecular level in the body. Scientific research in this framework has been
268
able to discover ways that alleviate physical pain or increase longevity. The Applications of
sociocultural factors also determine our mindset about aging. Have you noticed Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–II
the undying efforts of the beauty commercials of soaps, hair dyes, body lotion,
etc. that propagate that wrinkles, grey hair, loose skin are signs of being old?
On the other hand, we also celebrate people like Fauja Singh, a British Sikh
101 year old man who finished a marathon. Both the examples are unrealistic
portrayals of what aging looks like among the common people. A common
social benchmark of aging is through policies of retirement and entitlements
that people receive after a certain age (usually 60 or 65). In few cultures like
Japan and India, people of older age are treated with respect and seen as a
symbol of wisdom, while in individualistic societies aging is undesirable and
sometimes viewed as a liability.
Aging is viewed in terms of psychological changes when we refer to people as
‘being in a mood’, being slow, or being forgetful, or being emotionally needy.
The psychological adage of “you are only as old as you feel” in fact has many
positive implications of better health and wellbeing. Gana, Alaphilippe, and
Bailly (2004) assessed 857 elderly retirees for youthful illusion (bias of feeling
younger than one’s real age). It was reported that retirees who acknowledged of
an perceived age deflation experienced better leisure time, higher self esteem,
better perceived health, and less vulnerability to boredom than those who did
not harbour this perceived youthful bias.
Gerontological studies have classified age types that are dependent on factors
others than biological aging. Primary aging is understood mostly as biological
aging whereas secondary aging is a byproduct of ‘disuse, abuse, and disease’—
factors that are under personal control of an individual.
Erikson’s psychosocial theory provides a framework to understand conflicts
faced during old age that focuses on self reflection of the life lived and the sense
of fulfilment or regret felt. Those who feel accomplishment will feel a sense of
integrity. Those who do not find success feel regretful and despaired (Malone,
Liu, Vaillant, Rentz, & Waldinger, 2016).
Successful Aging
You must have come across interviews of celebrities who are sought to let out
their secret of fine aging. We usually connote them as ‘aging gracefully’, ‘aging
as wine’, etc.
So how do we understand ‘success in aging’?
The term ‘successful aging’ was made popular by Rowe and Kahn (1998) who
defined it based on three factors: a) no disability or disease, b) high cognitive
and physical abilities, c) meaningful socioemotional interaction with others.
Importantly, they did not reduce aging to simply being a by-product of genetic
factors but rather extended it as a combination of biology and lifestyle. Fig 15.6
provides a summary of various definitions rendered to the meaning of successful
aging. These definitions at the same time point out to several features that help
identify successful aging.

269
Applications of
Positive Psychology

Fig. 15.6: Definitions or indices of successful aging (Bowling & Dieppe, 2005)

15.8 APPLYING POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FOR

SUCCESSFUL AGING
Positive aging is defined by Havighurst (1963) as incremental longevity and
satisfaction from life. Ryff (1982) similarly defined successful aging as positive
optimal functioning in developmental progress across the life span. A few
strategies to implement for positive aging are provided below.
• Reducing Ageism
The negative stereotypes about age are socially constructed such as young
people cannot be leaders, old people cannot be active, etc. This eventually
translates to devaluation in the society, prejudiced behaviour, unfair treatment
and discrimination based on age. This not only has its own negative implications
in mental and physical health of the individual (Stephan, Sutin, & Terraciano,
2015) but also reflects in perceived change in ‘subjective age’ because of the
age related cues and information. Levy (2018) has proposed a PEACE model
expected to reduce ageism through positive education about ageing and contact
experiences (Refer Fig. 15.7). Education about aging with positive older role
models would help one appreciate getting older and dispel myths related to it.
Positive contact experiences will help integrate the relations between generations
270 through mutual cooperation, like working together on a social project.
 Applications of
Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–II

Fig. 15.7. PEACE Model to Reduce Ageism (Levi, 2016)

• Productive aging
Productive aging is referred to when older people work to enhance their own
welfare or that of the communities and society at large (Bass, Caro & Chen,
1993; Ranzijn, 2002). Productivity includes goods or services that otherwise
would have been charged for. However, it extends to unpaid work, such as
intangible contributions like passing on wisdom, guidance, knowledge, and
expertise. The idea is to disable the notion of utility confined to capitalistic
services and goods.
• Accepting Death Anxiety
Just talking about death is scary. Inevitably there is a lot of associated taboo
with the concept of death, and causes apprehension or dread. Occasionally it is
normal to feel this, but it feels more close to reality as we get older. Especially
during old age the apprehension may develop into an emotional difficulty. Wong
and Tomer (2011) has suggested that accepting death anxiety as a paradoxical
reality is valuable as it enhances resilience, meaning of life, and flourishing.
Positive attitude and meaning centered acceptance about death can contribute
to well-being (Neimeyer, 2005). Figure 15.8 enlists the different types of death
acceptance that can help one optimally adapt to the idea of death.

Fig. 15.8: Types of death acceptance (Wong & Tomer, 2011) 271
Applications of • Positive health
Positive Psychology
Subjective aging can have various psychological and affective implications
of cognition resulting in loneliness, anxiety, fear, depression, disability, and
pain. This could increase the stress burden, challenge sleep patterns, cause
amotivation, disability, and increase chronic pain. Positive intervention help to
minimise outcomes like decreasing coping ability, increased risk of injury, lack
of self care, dependence on pain killers, opoid usage, etc.
In the framework of positive psychology, several studies have confirmed that
positive psychology can create a fruitful liaison with health management.
One such use is the practice of optimism (Smith & Bryant, 2019). Similarly
mindfulness meditation has been efficacious in managing lower back pain,
insomnia, poor sleep quality by helping to foster strategies for stress reduction
and slowing biological aging process in the elderly (Hazlett-Stevens et al,
2019; Black & Slavich, 2016). Other positive mechanisms such as creativity
(Fox, 2013), hope (Wippold & Roncoroni, 2020), humor (Morse et al, 2018),
self compassion (Kim & Ko, 2018), spirituality and religion have been found
effective in buffering dementia (Agli, Bailly, & Ferrand, 2015) and positively
cope with aging effects.
• Positive emotions
Learning from the socioemotional selectivity theory, positivity bias in the form
of maximisation of feelings of contentment, serenity and happiness helps to
regulate emotions while overlooking criticism. So surrounding oneself with
enjoyment, jovial people, and cherishing ordinary everyday experiences (going
to a movie, dinner with family and friends) would invariably enhance wellbeing
and life satisfaction. In a study of happiness and longevity in Catholic nuns, it
was found that even at 80 years of age the most cheerful nuns (based on diary
entries at a younger age) had survival rate of 75% compared to 40 % for the
least cheerful group of nuns (Danner, Snowdon, & Friesen, 2001). Conversely,
it has been seen that lower level of happiness has been associated with dementia,
lesser social support, dependence, and loneliness (Baltes, & Smith, 2003).
• Active lifestyle
Staying active doesn’t quite mean to remain physically engaged. Active lifestyle
requires adequate and regular challenge and stimulation that results in a sense
of fulfilment such as playing card games or regular and enjoyable interaction
with people. No one activity is found to be superior to the other to ward off
cognitive impairment (Carlson et al, 2011). A study of 397 elderly Koreans
aged 65 and over found that only active leisure activities help the elderly to
enjoy their old age by increasing their physical health compared to passive
leisure activities that are enjoyed alone which may impede a socially-healthy
aging process (Chul-Ho, Johnson, & Chulhwan, 2020). This study maintained
that there was no difference in the forms of leisure activities.
• Religious or spiritual engagement
Spirituality or religious activity guides the elderly to tap into an active inner
resource and increases coping strategies. A quasi experimental study of 60
elderly residents in Indonesia experienced a higher quality of life after being
272
subject to a purposefully designed religious intervention (Prammesona & Applications of
Taneepanichskul, 2018). Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–II
• Music therapy
A very common activity like listening to music could have manifold benefits
and is known to boost positive emotions in elderly. Lauka (2007) reported that
few listening strategies were associated with psychological wellbeing in elders.
Hays and Minichiello (2005) in their qualitative study also revealed that music
provides people of connecting in their self identity, maintaining wellbeing,
enhancing and expressing spirituality. It also helps to maintain positive self
esteem, competence, independence, and avoid loneliness.
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. What is capitalization on positive event?
2. Differentiate between primary and secondary aging.
3. What are the different perspectives of aging?
4. Describe the PEACE model to reduce aging.
5. Identify two strategies that may help boost successful aging.

15.9 LET US SUM UP

This unit focused on three major areas where positive psychology can be
applied to enhance wellbeing and life satisfaction. The dynamics of the close
relationships, family, and aging were analysed. Further, several practical
approaches of positive psychology were enlisted with examples for enhancing
our close relationships and family relationships. The concept of aging and
successful aging were elaborated. Various techniques for aging successfully
were described. Positive psychology is an evolving and expanding field of
research which has great potential for achieving a flourishing state in our
relationships and in growing older gracefully and successfully.

15.10 KEY WORDS

Close Relationships: A relationship of mutual trust and respect,
rapport, bond, affinity
Familism: Ideology that prioritizes family over self
Subjective Age: Perceived age of oneself
Positive Aging: Adopting a positive outlook to enhance quality of life and
satisfaction during life span
Ageism: Discrimination against individuals or groups on the basis of their age
Positive Health: An approach to manage health using techniques of positive
psychology

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Applications of
Positive Psychology 15.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT
QUESTIONS
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Positive psychotherapy aims at “building what’s strong” as opposed to
“fixing what’s wrong”.
2. PERMA stands for Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning,
and Accomplishments.
3. Close relationships are distinct from casual relationships as they are marked
by trust, knowledge, intimacy, care, and interdependence.
4. The three major components are intimacy, passion, and decision/
commitment.
5. There are three primary styles: Eros (passionate, romantic love), Ludus
(playful love), Storge (friendship love).
6. Concurrent with attachment styles found in infants, adults have secure,
avoidant, and fearful avoidant attachment styles.
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. The Sound Relationship House, and the Emotional Bank Account are a few
positive techniques based on Gottman’s research.
2. Familism refers to a strong identification with nuclear and extended kin
enmeshed with high cooperation and affiliation.
3. Emotional bank account is a good exercise for couples to work on their
intimacy, conflicts, and emotional distance.
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Capitalization on positive event focuses on interpreting the positive event
in a unique and a meaningful manner giving a sense of privilege to the
concerned individual.
2. Primary aging is understood mostly as biological aging whereas secondary
aging is a byproduct of ‘disuse, abuse, and disease’—factors that are under
personal control of an individual.
3. Age can be understood from a biopsychosocial perspective as well as
based on functionality. Biological refers to deterioration at cellular level,
psychological perspective is the subjective age we confer to, and social
perspective is the age standard expectations set by social norms.
4. The PEACE model focuses on reducing ageism through positive education
about ageing and positive contact experiences.
5. Having an active lifestyle and focusing on positive emotions may immensely
boost positive aging.

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 Applications of
15.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–II
1. Describe the theories of love and friendship that help understand what close
relationships are.
2. What are the different positive techniques to help relationships flourish?
3. How can you apply positive psychology in the context of family?
4. Is aging only a biological process? Elaborate.
5. How is positive psychology useful for successful aging?

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Applications of
Positive Psychology 15.14 SUGGESTED READINGS
Burns, G. W. (Ed.). (2009). Happiness, healing, enhancement: Your casebook
collection for applying positive psychology in therapy. John Wiley & Sons.
Noller, P. (2013). Positive psychology of love. Oxford University Press.
Conoley, C. W., & Conoley, J. C. (2009). Positive psychology and family
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American Psychological Association.

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 Applications of
UNIT 16 APPLICATIONS OF POSITIVE Positive Psychology
PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY in Everyday Life–II

LIFE-III*
Structure
16.1 Learning Objectives
16.2 Introduction
16.3 Psychological Capital
16.4 Flow
16.5 Meaningful Work
16.6 Employee Engagement
16.7 Well-being
16.8 Positive Psychology Interventions at work
16.9 Let Us Sum Up
16.10 Key Words
16.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
16.12 Unit End Questions
16.13 References
16.14 Suggested Readings

16.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you would be able to:
• explain the meaning and scope of positive psychology in workplace;
• discuss the key constructs of positive psychology applied in workplace;
• explain Psychological Capital (PsyCap) and describe its four components
and measurement;
• discuss the concept of flow and meaningful work and their impact on
employee satisfaction and well-being;
• describe employee engagement and well-being in the context of work; and
• describe positive psychology interventions at work.

16.2 INTRODUCTION
Salim has completed his engineering degree from a reputed institute and has
got into a big multinational through campus placement. He has advanced quite
fast in his career by devoting so much of his time and energy, and has shifted
various companies also. He is now earning very good salary, and enjoying
281
*
Prof. Md. Ghazi Shahnawaz, Department of Psychology, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Applications of many benefits at workplace. He enjoys his work, however, of late he is feeling
Positive Psychology dissatisfied, having a sense of emptiness, and his life feels something lacking.
Have you ever come across such examples of people who despite having
everything going good for them related to their work, seem unhappy in their
life? This points out the significance of work to different aspects of our life.
Work is not merely a means to our sustenance, but also is a means to fulfill our
psychological needs and contributes to our health and well-being.
This realization has resulted in the development of a new field named Positive
Psychology in the Workplace or Positive Psychology at Work (PPW). PPW
is an umbrella term which covers application of knowledge, concepts and
principles of positive psychology at work. Despite the importance of PPW,
positive psychology at work did not get its due recognition until recently.
For example, an article in the famous ‘The Wall Street Journal’ (Wang et al.
2011) recognized the importance of the business world’s increasing attention
to positivity in the workplace, which has even extended to the United States
Army, as it adopted a technique for increasing soldiers’ resilience (Cornum,
Mathews, & Seligman, 2011).
PPW studies psychological states like self-efficacy, optimism, hope, resilience,
flow, and other personal resources in coping with organizational demands which
can affect organizational performance. Moreover, PPW focuses on positive
emotions and what makes work meaningful for us. PPW also deals with the
idea of positive leadership which would result in positive human capabilities
and positive emotions. At another level, it is also interested in organizational
outcomes such as employees’ engagement, and the factors which affect
employees’ engagement.
According to Ulrich (1997), employee contribution has become a critical
business issue as companies need to engage not only the body but also the
mind and soul of every employee. The employees need to feel respected and
valued for their contribution. This will motivate them, increase their work
commitment, and lead to employee satisfaction. All these are included under
the term ‘gainful employment’ (Snyder, Lopez, & Pedrotti, 2011). It focuses
on employee well-being with a comprehensive approach, taking care of the
physical, personal, psychological, economic, social, and organizationl aspects.
As indicated by Snyder et al. (2011), gainful employment is characterized by
nine features which can also be described as the benefits accruing from it (refer
Fig. 16.1).

Fig. 16.1: Aspects of Gainful Employment

282
Let us now learn about certain key constructs involved in positive psychology at Applications of
work. These are PsyCap, Flow, Positive emotions, Meaning of work, Employees Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–III
engagement, and Well-being.

16.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL (PSYCAP)

Case study 1: Sheila’s story
Sheila was supposed to join one of the premier hospitality chains after the
completion of her Hotel Management course. She was one of the top rankers
and was offered the highest pay package from the batch. She was very excited to
join the workforce and to show her skills/talent to the world. However, Covid-
19 struck the world and affected all aspects of our life/various industrial sectors
and the hospitality sector was badly affected.
The organization withheld the job for her as the market was closed due to
lockdown. She got frustrated, depressed, and lost hope in life. However, Sheila
slowly recognized that there are millions of people around the world having
the same fate as her. She decided to use the pandemic to develop new skills
by joining online courses, learning dance, and the French language. It was
difficult initially but slowly she started believing in her abilities, could see the
pandemic as a chance to learn new skills which were not possible earlier due to
the hectic academic schedule of her course, and finally, she bounced back, and
got a new job with good salary and perks.
• How did Sheila feel when her job was withheld by the company?
• Identify some of her strengths that helped her to survive the pandemic and
move ahead in life.
The case of Sheila above highlights the importance of Psychological Capital
(PsyCap) in people’s lives. PsyCap is one of the very important developments
in PPW, and it comprises of self-efficacy/confidence (Bandura, 1997), optimism
(Seligman, 2002), hope (Snyder, 2002a), and resiliency (Masten, 2001). PsyCap
has been formally defined as:
“…an individual’s positive psychological state of development and is
characterized by: (1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and
put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a
positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future;
(3) persevering towards goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to
goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and
adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resiliency) to
attain success (Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007, p.3).”
Moreover, PsyCap has been presented as a higher-order core construct that
integrates these four individual-level attributes not only additively but also
perhaps, synergistically (Luthans et al. 2007). A substantial body of knowledge
suggest that PsyCap is positively related to performance, wellbeing, and other
desirable outcomes (Avey et al., 2011; Newman et al., 2014; Luthans & Youssef-
Morgan, 2017; Nolzen, 2018). At the same time, PsyCap is negatively related
to undesirable outcomes such as stress, burnout, and counterproductive work
behavior (Avey et al., 2011; Newman et al., 2014).
283
Applications of Let us now learn about the four components of PsyCap, also acronymed as
Positive Psychology ‘HERO’ (you have already learned about these positive constructs in detail in
earlier Units).
a) Hope: Hope is defined as a positive motivational state comprising of agency
(goal-directed energy), and pathways (planning to meet goals). People who
are high on hope are likely to have self-directed determination, energy,
and high control over the situation, which would result in the generation
of alternate pathways to reach the desired goal. Hope is related to work
performance, physical and mental health, survival and coping beliefs and
skills, and other desirable positive life and well-being outcomes (e.g.,
Onwuegbuzie & Snyder, 2000).
b) Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy is one’s conviction about their ability to
mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed
to successfully perform a specific task within a given context (Stajkovic &
Luthans, 1998). Self-efficacy leads to enhanced confidence, performance
and employee engagement (Pati & Kumar, 2010).
c) Resilience: Resilience is defined as the capacity to rebound or bounce
back from adversity, conflict, failure, or even positive events, progress,
and increased responsibility (Luthans, 2007). Thus resilience is not only
about bouncing back from the adversity but also adapting to positive, and
challenging events in life (e.g., getting a new assignment abroad or getting
promotion). Resilient people have a greater sense of reality as they are
open to new experiences, are flexible to changing demands, and show more
emotional stability when faced with adversity (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004).
They use adversities/ failures as a “springboard” to reach higher ground. In
the present day context, when restructuring/downsizing/laying off is the
order of the day, resilience could be an important resource for employees
who can adapt effectively to constantly changing work environment.
d) Optimism: Optimism is concerned with the interpretation of events/things in
our lives, and therefore, optimism is defined as an attributional style and is
associated with positive outcomes. However, optimism has to be balanced,
realistic, and flexible. An over optimistic explanatory will have undesirable
side effects or even dangerous implications because it may lead to higher
risks and underestimation of potential dangers. Thus, optimism is not only
about the attribution of positive events in life, but it also involves taking
into account the past events, the present context, contingency planning,
functioning in a disciplined manner and preventive care. People with high
optimism use both cognitive and emotional resources.
PCQ-24 (Luthans, Yousseff, & Avolio, 2007) is one of the most widely
used scales to measure PsyCap. It is a valid measure used in many countries
including India (Cid et al., 2020; Imran and Shahnawaz, 2020; Sahoo and Sia,
2015). However, there is some evidence that the core of Indian ‘Self’ is different
from the individualistic orientation of PsyCap constructs (Roseman, Dhawan,
Rettek , & Thapa, 1995).

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 Applications of
16.4 FLOW Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–III
Case study 2: Romeo-The Storyteller
Romeo is a student of literature. He likes to read real-life stories and enjoys
the characters’ progression in the story’s development. Somewhere in his
heart, he knew that he liked storytelling and would want to pursue his career in
scriptwriting. Initially, he didn’t know the technicalities and skills of writing.
He did an online certificate course in writing. In his college fest, he eagerly
took part in a writing competition. This competition was important for him.
He experienced a kind of excitement and new zeal while attempting to start
building his story. He was fully involved with the task and found a great sense
of pleasure and curiosity in it. He was completely cut off from the outside world
and fully immersed in the life of the characters he was building. He created
the range and character arc of his protagonist and found himself as one with
his character. He was not aware of the time passing by while writing the story.
Words were flowing easily and quickly for him like a smooth stream. At that
time, he didn’t focus on whether he was going to win or lose the competition;
he was enjoying the process of writing, and that mattered to him the most.
However, somewhere in his deep heart he was sure he would win and was ready
to try out something in this field even if he loses this one.
After reading the section on flow,
• Identify the mental state of Romeo.
• Can you identify the factors which would have paved the way for flow
experience?
tFlow is a state of consciousness where people become immersed in an activity
and enjoy it intensely (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). There are three essential
components of flow: absorption, enjoyment, and intrinsic motivation. In the
context of work, flow can be considered as a short-term peak experience that
has integrated components of absorption, work enjoyment, and intrinsic work
motivation (Bakker 2005). Employees in a flow state are fascinated by the tasks
they perform, and the intrinsic aspects of the tasks in themselves are enough
to motivate them. Flow also refers to one’s intense involvement with the task
which would result in high levels of focus, confidence, and performance (Harris
et al. 2017). Performance usually becomes automatic, as no deliberate effort is
required when one is in a flow state. For example, when a batsman plays well in
front of a big crowd, he is in total control of the situation and plays effortlessly.
He is immersed in the game and enjoys every ball he plays. Flow is positively
related to various indicators of job performance such as self-rated as well as
other rated performance.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. What is gainful employment?
2. Name the components of PsyCap.
3. Hope consists of ________________ and ____________________.
4. _________________ is one of the most widely used scales to measure
PsyCap. 285
5. Mention the three compnents of flow.
Applications of
Positive Psychology 16.5 MEANINGFUL WORK
Case study 3: Amit’s Story: Does a job need to mean something?
Amit, 32 years old, working in a reputed banking firm in India is going through a
crisis at work. He cannot understand his reduced sense of motivation and focus
at work even though he is earning seven figures. His manager and colleagues
create a healthy and positive work environment. But he feels that his work is
not making him feel empowered. It’s difficult for him to explain that his salary
is not a motivating factor.
Why is Amit unhappy with his work? Amit’s reduced enthusiasm and focus at
work are due to the need for a higher purpose in life. He is going through a
crisis of meaning.
But why does work need to provide a higher purpose and meaning? How can
this increase motivation and productivity at work?
Many employees are going through a crisis of meaning at work. They need their
work to serve a higher purpose in life, desire more control over work, and need
growth opportunities to proclaim the joys of the role they are serving at work.
Thus, employees are looking for work that provides meaning to them (Tommasi
et al., 2020). Meaningfulness of work predicts positive workplace outcomes
including organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behaviors,
employee engagement, and job satisfaction (Rosso et al., 2010).
Meaningful work is defined as workplace characteristics that facilitate the
attainment or maintenance of one or more dimensions of meaning (Fairlie,
2011). It is considered as a psychological need that helps to strengthen an
individual’s self-esteem and personal agency (Bailey et al., 2019). Moreover,
meaningful work is considered as an individual’s judgment regarding their work
and the value they derive from work (Steger et al., 2012). Aligned with this
view, meaningful work helps achieve a sense of calling and enjoying benefits
such as enhanced motivation, productivity, and well-being. Employees who feel
their work is meaningful report greater well-being and view their work as more
central and important to their self (Martel and Pessi, 2018). In contrast, a lack
of meaningful work has long been recognized as a primary source of alienation,
anxiety, emotional exhaustion, burnout, and boredom in the organization
(Shantz et al., 2014). Thus, the absence of meaningful work can potentially
undermine the person–work–organization relationship (Bendassolli, 2018).
Although research on meaningful work is relatively new but there is a growing
body of evidence that suggest that it has positive impact on human beings,
not only at the individual level, but also at the organizational level. It helps
employees to foster their life and work by satisfying intrinsic and basic
needs for living. At the organizational level, it contributes to organizational
performance, including financial performance. It also leads to job enjoyment,
intrinsic motivation, job security, growth opportunities, positive self-concept,
organization identification, and morale (Bailey et al., 2019). Thus, meaningful
work has numerous positive outcomes to employees and organizations.

286
 Applications of
16.6 EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–III
The Great Resignation during the Covid-19 pandemic: Why So?
Millions of employees voluntarily quit their jobs during 2020-21 mainly due
to uncertainty associated with Covid-19, and the consequent drastic changes
introduced to deal with the pandemic. These drastic changes have resulted in
collective burnout or exhaustion arising from prolonged emotional and mental
stress. Moreover, many resigned as they look for better job opportunities that
offer better pay, new challenges, and more flexibility. Many job seekers are
looking for new challenges due to exhaustion and stagnancy as a result of
following a similar working pattern daily, as a result of the work-from-home
arrangement, and many others are looking for stable jobs. Interestingly, a
survey conducted by Amazon India during September 2021 suggested that
over 50 percent of job seekers are looking for opportunities in sectors or
industries where they have little or no experience.
However, the problem is much deeper, the toxic culture is mainly to be
blamed for such a large-scale resignation. Toxic work culture can be found
in any kind of work setting and is not conducive to employee well-being,
productivity, and progression. A toxic culture is characterized by conflict,
hostile interpersonal relationships, and unethical conduct. A recent study
conducted at law firms showed that half of the legal workers felt that
their productivity and wellbeing have been impacted by ‘toxic workplace
culture (‘Toxic work culture’ impacting productivity, say half of legal
workers - Legal Cheek). The study further shows almost two-fifths (38%)
of participants be less engaged with their roles as a result of their workplace
culture, while a little over a fifth (21%) had taken time off due to an incident
that occurred at work. Seventeen percent reported calling in sick as a result
of an incident. 29% also reported that they would quit their current role as
soon as they could find a new job.
The above description clearly shows that in these kinds of organizations,
employees could not feel cognitively and emotionally attached to the
organization because organizations failed to win the heart and soul of their
employees.
Source: The Great Resignation: Why are so many people quitting jobs across the globe? - Business News
(indiatoday.in)

Employee engagement refers to an employee’s psychological investment in

the organization. However, Harter et al. (2003) felt that employee engagement
is not merely psychological but it is a combination of cognitive, emotional,
and behavioral attachment with the organization. According to Gallup (2017),
employees’ engagement is the involvement and enthusiasm of employees in
their work and workplace. Based on the Gallup Employee Engagement Survey
Analysis Tool (ESAT, Corporate Leadership Council, 2009), engagement
can be divided into two components i.e., emotional and rational engagement.
Emotional engagement is defined as “the extent to which employees value,
enjoy, and believe in their jobs, managers, teams or organizations”, while
rational engagement has been defined as “the extent to which employees
believe that managers, teams, or organizations have their self-interest in mind
287
Applications of (financial, developmental, or professional)” (p. 4). For Schaufeli et al. (2002),
Positive Psychology employee engagement is a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is
characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption. Moreover, it is a persistent
and pervasive affective-cognitive state that is not focused on any specific object,
event, individual, or behavior.
Employee engagement helps in assessing and governing employees’ perspectives
on important facets of organizational culture. It helps in finding out whether
employees are sincerely involved with their work or merely investing their
time, whether human resource practices and team building activities lead
to positive outcomes or there is scope for improvement. According to more
than 50 years of research in the area of employee engagement, Gallup (2019)
reported that irrespective of the economic times - good or bad, company size,
nationalities, and industry type, engaged employees are more likely to bring out
better organizational outcomes than those who are not.
Engaged employees are like to bring their mind, heart, and soul to the
organization. A positive correlation is generally found between employee
engagement and organizational performance. Harter et al. (2002) reported
a positive correlation of employee engagement with customer satisfaction
(r=0.33), as well as with employee profit (r= 0.17). Xanthopoulou et al. (2009)
also found that employee engagement has a positive effect on the financial
performance of the organization. Singh and Sanjeev (2013) found five factors
as predictors of employees’ engagement in India; they are encouragement and
meaningful task, recognition and support, motivation and cooperation, feedback
and corporate annual reports.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. A sense of calling at work can help achieve meaningful work.
True/ False
2. Name the two components of employee engagement.
3. Employee engagement refers to an employee’s ___________
investment in the organization.
4. Meaningful work has positive impact on human beings at the
individual level only, and not on the organizational level. True/ False

16.7 WELL-BEING
Case Study 4: Rita and Shwetha: Two perspective on Happiness/Well-
being
Rita, a college student got a notification tune from her smartphone and couldn’t
resist checking it. To her surprise, it was an amazon lottery ticket which she
applied for a few days back by playing a simple quiz game. A few moments
later, she got a call from Amazon and was told that she was the winner of the
20,000 cash prize, which would get transferred to her bank account in 24hours.
She got super excited to know this and informed her friends. She thought that
she could spend this money as she wanted and even do lots of shopping for her
upcoming farewell party. Moreover, she invited all her friends to a party to
288 celebrate her lottery win. She was feeling elated and on top of the world.
Rita’s friend Shwetha also got excited to join Rita’s party. It was indeed a Applications of
lavish party and all of them had fun. However, Shwetha also felt that the party Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–III
could have been slightly low-key. She thought how much happiness the party
would give and for long can one remain happy with the pizza party. She also
felt that some of the money could have been given to Rita’s maid (who lost her
husband because of the COVID-19 pandemic) so that she could pay the school
fee for her daughter. It also made her sad and dejected. Shwetha decided to
help them. First of all, she started home tutoring the girl and some other poor
kids from her neighborhood. She also managed to get help from one of the
NGOs to buy smartphones for the kids to attend online classes and lectures. It
was difficult initially but Shwetha did it. The process of helping the poor kids
and managing to get them smartphones made her happy.
Can you compare the idea of happiness of Rita with that of Shwetha? Happiness
is frequently used interchangeably with well-being. For example, happiness is
usually equated with hedonia (experiencing pleasure and avoiding pain), and
well-being is considered a broader phenomenon involving affective, cognitive,
and behavioural components (Kun and Gadenecz, 2022). In the present context,
both concepts are used interchangeably for a simpler understanding.
There are at least three conceptualizations of well-being: hedonic, eudaimonic,
and social framework. The hedonic framework is based on positive affect/
negative affect and life-satisfaction constructs. According to the hedonic
framework, happiness is cognitive (how satisfied one is from life?) and affective
(positive affect versus negative affect) evaluation of one’s life. The eudaimonic
framework emphasizes optimal functioning and is measured in terms of self-
acceptance, purpose in life, environmental mastery, positive relationships,
personal growth, and autonomy.
Many researchers/psychologists have recommended using both the hedonic and
eudaimonic approaches (Kashdan, Biswas-Diener, and King, 2008). Henderson
and Knight (2012) also found that a life rich in both pursuits was associated
with a greater degree of well-being. Waterman (2008) insists that both types
of well-being are important and should be measured. The sociocultural context
also needs to be considered while conceptualizing happiness (Srivastava and
Misra, 2011).
Social well-being is the third kind of well-being (Keyes,1998) that includes
social coherence, social acceptance, social actualization, social contribution,
and social integration. It reflects how we are functioning with others and how
well we are contributing to the social realm of society.
There is no denying the fact that generic well-being (hedonic, eudaimonic,
and social well-being) is an important concept, however, Dagenais-Desmarais
& Savoie (2011) felt that generic well-being measures may not tap the
complexities of the contemporary organizations and would create difficulties
in explaining organizational outcomes such as performance, absenteeism and
turnover. Organizational context is characterized by management processes,
organizational cultures, and organizational systems which are unique to the
organizations and different from other life domains such as friends and family.
The work context constitutes an important life domain wherein one adapts to a
complex set of relationships, responsibilities, and expectations, and is evaluated 289
and rewarded (or sanctioned) by others.
Applications of Pryce-Jones (2010) has presented a model of happiness at work based on
Positive Psychology her five-year extensive study. In this model, happiness at work is defined as
a mindset that allows an individual to maximize performance and achieve
potential while encompassing job satisfaction and engagement. This model has
put the employee at the center (in terms of his/her achievement potential) thus
emphasizing the power an individual has over his/her level of happiness. There
are 5 C’s placed around this center and these are – Contribution (constructive and
productive effort), Conviction (motivation, efficiency, and resilience along with
a positive perception of job importance), Culture (norms, values, and behavior
of an organization), Commitment (an interacting set of feelings and beliefs)
and Confidence (self-control; high levels of self-belief; a clear understanding of
role). The outer circle is conceptualized with pride, trust, and recognition. While
pride and trust are the individual’s contributions to the organization, recognition
is an organizational level construct that is a kind of exchange for a job well-
done by the employee. Pryce-Jones (2010) has provided comprehensive and
research-based evidence for the utility of workplace happiness.
Employee well-being is a crucial factor in an organization’s performance and
success and it has implications for health, work behavior, job satisfaction, and
burnout (Crede et al. 2007; Fisher 2010). Moreover, Individuals with higher
levels of well-being are more cooperative, have more satisfying relationships,
stronger immune systems, fewer sleep problems, greater self-control, better
self-regulation and coping abilities (Diener & Seligman 2002; Chida & Steptoe,
2008). There are many individual, group, managerial and organizational levels
factors that are strongly related to employee well-being (Nielsen et al. 2017).
Therefore, the organization needs to leverage employees’ well-being by devising
organizational policies and practices which would lead to well-being at work.

14.8 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY INTERVENTIONS

AT WORK
Positive Psychology Interventions at work (PPIs at work) are interventions that
explicitly apply the theory and scholarship of positive work and organization
psychologies to guide, plan, design, and/or implement the interventions to
improve personal as well as organizational level outcomes. Donaldson, Lee,
and Donaldson (2019) in a meta-analytic review of 22 research articles found
that that PPIs at work had a small to moderate effect on desirable (e.g., job
well-being) and undesirable work outcomes (e.g., job stress). They also found
that “PPIs at work significantly improved well-being, engagement, and other
important work outcomes (i.e., leader member exchange, organization based
self-esteem, workplace trust, forgiveness, prosocial behavior, leadership, and
calling)” (p. 128).
Thus the PPIs focus on the strengths that employees have, increasing the sense
of engagement, and employee satisfaction. It underlies a strengths-based
approach to work where the focus is on building on the assets of the employees
rather than trying to change their weaknesses (Snyder, Lopez, & Pedrotti, 2011,
p. 435). The strengths-based approach involves three aspects (Clifton & Harter,
2003): (a) identifying the talents of employees and increasing their awareness
about these; (b) integrating these talents into the self-image of the employee;
290 and (c) implementing behavioural change where the employees use their talents
to achieve success.
Various positive psychology interventions using the strengths of employees Applications of
can be described in the following categories (Donaldson, Lee, & Donaldson, Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–III
2019):
1) Psychological Capital Interventions
As discussed in the earlier section, PsyCap is the synergistic combination
of hope, self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism (indicated by the acronym
HERO). PsyCap resources are malleable, open to development, and integral
to human resource practices (Luthans & Youssef-Morgan, 2017). PsyCap
interventions are associated with a variety of work outcomes, including
improved job performance, engagement, and organizational citizenship
behaviors (e.g., Avey et al. 2010). Not only physical intervention, but even
web-based interventions can also develop four PsyCap resources (Luthans
et al. 2008).
2) Job Crafting Interventions
Job crafting is a proactive process at work in which employees can redesign
their jobs so that they have some control over their work. Job crafting will
help employees to have an optimal fit between job demands and personal
resources such as personal needs, abilities, and strengths (Wrzesniewski
and Dutton 2001). Job crafting interventions have been found to improve
performance, well-being, and work engagement (Van den Heuvel et al.
2015; Wingerden et al. 2016).
3) Employee Strengths Interventions
Character strengths are natural strengths of human being can be defined as
trait-like, measurable qualities that manifest in ways of thinking, feeling,
and behaving. Employees’ strengths interventions apply the theory of
character strengths to the identification, development, and use of strengths
for employees. Values in Action (VIA) inventory was created by Peterson
and Seligman (2004) that can be used to identify and describe the optimal
human character strengths. MacKie’s (2014) research has shown that
strengths interventions can be useful for improving the well-being, and
leadership of employees. Overall, strengths interventions for desirable work
outcomes were shown to have stronger effects than other interventions
(Donaldson, Lee, and Donaldson, 2019).
4) Employee Gratitude Interventions
Gratitude in the workplace is “noticing and appreciating the positive ‘in
one’s work life’ specifically and not in the generic world (Wood et al.
2010). Therefore, employee gratitude interventions are activities that aim to
increase the practice of gratitude in the workplace. Researchers have used
both paper-pencil and web-based gratitude interventions at work (Komase
et al., 2021). Wood et al. (2010) felt that gratitude interventions are a robust
strategy for improving employee job well-being. The effect of gratitude
interventions for desirable work outcomes was found to be strongest as
compared to other interventions such as psychological capital interventions
or job crafting or well‐being interventions (Donaldson, Lee, & Donaldson,
2019).
291
Applications of 5) Employee Well-Being Interventions
Positive Psychology
Employee well-being involves both generic well-being and work-specific
well-being as discussed. In the context of work, Seligman’s wellbeing theory
known as PERMA (i.e., positive emotions, engagement, relationships,
meaning, and accomplishment) has been used widely. Employee well-
being interventions have been shown to reduce employee absenteeism
and turnover intentions, as well as improve job satisfaction (Boehm &
Lyubomirsky 2008; Layous et al. 2013).
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. What does social well-being include?
2. Name the five C’s related to the employee in Pryce-Jones model of
happiness at work.
3. Define Positive psychology interventions at work?
4. What is job crafting?

14.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have learned some of the key concepts of positive psychology
in the workplace. You also learned about Positive Psychology Interventions
at work which focus on training and intervention. Let us just briefly recall the
main points.
• PsyCap: PsyCap is the synergistic combination of self-efficacy, hope,
optimism, and resilience. PsyCap resources are malleable, open to
development, and integral to human resource practices in organizations.
PsyCap is positively related to performance, wellbeing, and other desirable
outcomes. At the same time, PsyCap is negatively related to undesirable
outcomes such as stress, burnout, and counterproductive work behavior.
PsyCap is best measured by PCQ-24 which is valid in many parts of the
world including India.
• Flow: Flow in the context of work is a short-term peak experience comprising
absorption, work enjoyment, and intrinsic work motivation. Employees in a
flow state are fascinated by the tasks they perform, and the intrinsic aspects
of the tasks in themselves are enough to motivate them.
• Meaningful Work: Meaningful work is defined as workplace characteristics
that facilitate the attainment or maintenance of one or more dimensions
of meaning. Meaningful work is considered as an individual’s judgment
regarding their work and the value they derive from work. Employees who
feel their work as ‘meaningful’ report greater well-being and view their
work as more central and important to their actual selves. On the other
hand, a lack of meaningful work is a source of alienation, anxiety, emotional
exhaustion, burnout, and boredom in the organization. Meaningfulness
of work predicts positive workplace outcomes including organizational
commitment, organizational citizenship behaviors, employee engagement,
and job satisfaction.
292
• Employee Engagement: Employee engagement is a combination of Applications of
cognitive, emotional, and behavioral attachment with the organization. Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–III
It is the involvement and enthusiasm of employees in their work and
workplace.
• Well-being at work: Well-being is considered a broader phenomenon
involving affective, cognitive, and behavioral components. Well-being can
be generic as well as work-related. Generic well-being measures may not
tap the complexities of the contemporary organizations and would create
difficulties in explaining organizational outcomes such as performance,
absenteeism, and turnover.
• Positive psychology Interventions at work: Positive Psychology
Interventions at work (PPIs at work) are interventions that explicitly apply
the theory and scholarship of positive work and organization psychologies
to guide, plan, design, and/or implement the interventions to improve
personal as well as organizational level outcomes. Broadly PPIs at work
can be grouped into five categories: PsyCap interventions, Job crafting
interventions, Employees strength interventions, Employees gratitude
interventions, and finally employees wellbeing interventions.

14.10 KEY WORDS

PsyCap: Refers to psychological capital which is a synergistic combination of
self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience.
Flow: A short-term peak experience in the context of work comprising of
absorption, work enjoyment, and intrinsic work motivation.
Meaningful Work: It is defined as workplace characteristics that facilitate the
attainment or maintenance of one or more dimensions of meaning. It is also
considered as an individual’s judgment regarding their work and the value they
derive from work.
Employee Engagement: Employee engagement is a combination of cognitive,
emotional, and behavioral attachment with the organization.
Well-being: Well-being is considered a broader phenomenon involving
affective, cognitive, and behavioural components related to employee well-
being which has important implications for organizational outcomes.
Positive Psychology Interventions at Work: Interventions that explicitly apply
the theory and scholarship of positive work and organization psychologies to
guide, plan, design, and/or implement the interventions to improve personal as
well as organizational level outcomes.

14.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Gainful employment focuses on employee well-being with a comprehensive
approach, taking care of the physical, personal, psychological, economic,
social, and organizationl aspects. 293
Applications of 2. Hope, optimism, self-efficacy, and resilience
Positive Psychology
3. agency (goal-directed energy), and pathways (planning to meet goals).
4. PCQ-24
5. absorption, work enjoyment, and intrinsic work motivation
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. True
2. Emotional engagement and rational engagement
3. Psychological
4. False
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Social well-being includes social coherence, social acceptance, social
actualization, social contribution, and social integration.
2. Contribution, Conviction, Culture, Commitment, and Confidence
3. Positive Psychology Interventions at work (PPIs at work) are interventions
that explicitly apply the theory and scholarship of positive work and
organization psychologies to guide, plan, design, and/or implement
the interventions to improve personal as well as organizational level
outcomes.
4. Job crafting is a proactive process at work in which employees can redesign
their jobs so that they have some control over their work.

14.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Explain the importance of the study of Positive Psychology at work.
2. Explain the meaning and implications of the four components of PsyCap on
personal and organizational outcomes.
3. Discuss the meaning and consequences of employee engagement.
4. Definr meaningful work and why it is important for employee well-being.
5. The ‘Gratitude at work intervention’ has been found to have strongest impact
on desirable work outcomes as compared to other positive psychology at
work intervention. Explain why it would have happened.

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14.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). The masterminds’ series. Finding flow: The
psychology of engagement with everyday life. Basic Books
Dalal, A.K., & Mishra, G. (Ed.) New directions in Health psychology. New
Delhi: Sage Publications.
Keyes, C. & Haidt, J. (Eds.), Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-
lived. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Linley, P.A. Harrington, S., Garcea, N., & Page, N. (2010). Oxford Handbook
of Positive Psychology at work. Oxford University Press.
Luthans, F., Avolio, B.J., & Youseff, C. (2007). Psychological Capital:
Developing the Human Competitive Edge. Oxford, England: Oxford University
Press.
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Snyder, C.R., Irving, L., & Anderson, J. (1991). Hope and health: Measuring Applications of
the will and the ways. In C.R. Snyder & D.R. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology
in Everyday Life–III
social and clinical psychology. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon
Srivastava, A.K. & Misra G. (2011). Happiness and Well-being: An Indian
Perspective. Handbook of Psychology in India. India: Oxford Publishing.
Weblinks:
Psychological Capital - YouTube
Luthans on Psychological Capital - YouTube
Psychological Capital – It Takes More Than Money To Trade Well - Bing
video
Mihaly Csikszentmihaly - Flow: Psychology, Creativity, & Optimal Experience
- Bing video
Flow at Work - Bing video
Meaningful Work with Dr. Christopher Michaelson - Bing video
Frientorship: The Solution To The Employee Engagement Problem | Claudia
Williams | TEDxPSU - Bing video
What Is The Definition of Employee Engagement? - Bing video
The Secrets to Happiness at Work | Zack Friedman | TEDxRochester - Bing
video
Well-Being at Work: What Employers Can Do Today - Bing video
Workplace Positive Psychology Exercises: An Evidence-Based Guide to
Implementation - Highlights - Bing video

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