Electromagnetic radiation belonging to this region of the spectrum (wavelength of about 400
nm to 750 nm) is called light
Nature has endowed the human eye (retina) with the sensitivity to detect electromagnetic
waves within a small range of the electromagnetic spectrum
light travels with enormous speed and second and travels in a straight line. the speed of light is
finite and measurable and highest speed in nature
light is an electromagnetic wave of wavelength belonging to the visible part of the spectrum
the wavelength of light is very small compared to the size of ordinary objects that we encounter
commonly
a light wave can be considered to travel from one point to another, along a straight line joining
them. The path is called a ray of light, and a bundle of such rays constitutes a beam of light
Laws of reflection are valid at each point on any reflecting surface whether plane or
curved.however for spherical it is different.
normal to the tangent to surface at the point of incidence is normal. That is, the normal is along
the radius, the line joining the centre of curvature of the mirror to the point of incidence.
the geometric centre of a spherical mirror is called its pole while that of a spherical lens is called
its optical centre.
The line joining the pole and the centre of curvature of the spherical mirror is known as the
principal axis. In the case of spherical lenses, the principal axis is the line joining the optical
centre with its principal focus
Acoordin to Cartesian sign convention, all distances are measured from the pole of the mirror or
the optical centre of the lens. The distances measured in the same direction as the incident light
are taken as positive and those measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident
light are taken as negative
The heights measured upwards with respect to x-axis and normal to the principal axis (x-axis) of
the mirror/lens are taken as positive. The heights measured downwards are taken as negative.
The distance between the focus F and the pole P of the mirror is called the focal length of the
mirror, denoted by f
. The image is real if the rays actually converge to the point; it is virtual if the rays do not actually
meet but appear to diverge from the point when produced backwards. An image is thus a point-
to-point correspondence with the object established through reflection and/or refraction.
If rays emanating from a point actually meet at another point after reflection and/or refraction,
that point is called the image of the first point
An infinite number of rays emanate from any source, in all directions.
A ray of light represents a beam, n21 means refractive index of the second medium with respect
to the first medium.
n21 is a characteristic of the pair of media (and also depends on the wavelength of light), but is
independent of the angle of incidence
Optical density should not be confused with mass density, which is mass per unit volume. It is
possible that mass density of an optically denser medium may be less than that of an optically
rarer medium (optical density is the ratio of the speed of light in two media). For example,
turpentine and water. Mass density of turpentine is less than that of water but its optical density
is higher
For a rectangular slab, refraction takes place at two interfaces (airglass and glass-air). , the
emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray—there is no deviation, but it does suffer lateral
displacement/shift with respect to the incident ray. Another familiar observation is that the
bottom of a tank filled with water appears to be raised. For viewing near the normal direction, it
can be shown that the apparent depth (h1 ) is real depth (h2 ) divided by the refractive index of
the medium (water).
The reflected ray, therefore, is always less intense than the incident ray. In total internal
reflection, on the other hand, no transmission of light takes place
If the angle of incidence exceeds this critical angle (i > i_c), Snell's law can no longer be satisfied,
and refraction is no longer possible. Instead, total internal reflection occurs, where all the light
is reflected back into the denser medium. there is a maximum angle (the critical angle) beyond
which refraction cannot happen, and instead, the light will be entirely reflected.
A demonstration for total internal reflection
Steps:
1. Fill a beaker with clear water and add milk to make it turbid.
2. Shine the laser pointer through the water, and observe the beam shining inside due to
scattering.
3. Shine the laser from below the beaker, striking the upper water surface. You’ll see:
o Partial reflection (spot on the table)
o Partial refraction (spot on the roof)
4. Gradually adjust the laser angle until the refraction disappears, and only reflection occurs
inside the water. This is total internal reflection.
5. Optionally, pour the water into a test tube and shine the laser from the top to see total
internal reflection on the tube walls (similar to optical fibers).
Key Concept:Total internal reflection happens when the light’s angle of incidence exceeds the
critical angle, reflecting entirely within the medium.
In prism of total internal reflection, the critical angle i c for the material of the prism must be
less than 45°. This is true for both crown glass and dense flint glass.
optical fibres are extensively used for transmitting audio and video signals through long
distances
Optical fibres are fabricated with high quality composite glass/quartz fibres. Each fibre consists
of a core and cladding. The refractive index of the material of the core is higher than that of the
cladding.
Since light undergoes total internal reflection at each stage, there is no appreciable loss in the
intensity of the light signal. Optical fibres are fabricated such that light reflected at one side of
inner surface strikes the other at an angle larger than the critical angle. Even if the fibre is bent,
light can easily travel along its length. Thus, an optical fibre can be used to act as an optical pipe.
The main requirement in fabricating optical fibres is that there should be very little absorption of
light as it travels for long distances inside them. This has been achieved by purification and
special preparation of materials such as quartz. In silica glass fibres, it is possible to transmit
more than 95% of the light over a fibre length of 1 km
Optical fibres are extensively used for transmitting and receiving electrical signals which are
converted to light by suitable transducers
A thin lens is a transparent optical medium bounded by two surfaces; at least one of which
should be spherical
lens maker’s formula is useful to design lenses of desired focal length using surfaces of suitable
radii of curvature. Note that the formula is true for a concave lens also. In that case R1 is
negative, R2 positive and therefore, f is negative
the two foci, F and F¢, of a double convex or concave lens are equidistant from the optical
centre. The focus on the side of the (original) source of light is called the first focal point,
whereas the other is called the second focal point.
q) A magician during a show makes a glass lens with n = 1.47 disappear in a trough of liquid. What is the
refractive index of the liquid? Could the liquid be water?
Solution The refractive index of the liquid must be equal to 1.47 in order to make the lens disappear.
This means n1 = n2 . This gives 1/f =0 or f ® ¥. The lens in the liquid will act like a plane sheet of glass.
No, the liquid is not water. It could be glycerine
a lens of shorter focal length bends the incident light more, while converging it in case of a
convex lens and diverging it in case of a concave lens
when an optician prescribes a corrective lens of power + 2.5 D, the required lens is a convex lens
of focal length + 40 cm. A lens of power of – 4.0 D means a concave lens of focal length – 25 cm
power P of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or diverges a
beam of light parallel to the principal axis falling at unit distance from the optical centre
Combination of lenses helps to obtain diverging or converging lenses of desired magnification. It
also enhances sharpness of the image
Such a system of combination of lenses is commonly used in designing lenses for cameras,
microscopes, telescopes and other optical instruments.
