CAL Online Resources: Digests

ESL and Bilingual Program Models

September 1993
Jeanne Rennie, ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics

Children from families in which English is not the language of the home represent a rapidly
increasing percentage of students enrolled in U.S. schools. Language minority students can be
found in schools across the country, not just those in large cities or in areas near the U.S.-
Mexican border. All schools must be prepared to meet the challenge of an increasingly diverse
student population, including many students who are not proficient in English.

The effectiveness of various program models for language minority students remains the
subject of controversy. Although there may be reasons to claim the superiority of one program
model over another in certain situations (Collier 1992; Ramirez, Yuen, and Ramey 1991), a
variety of programs can be effective. The choice should be made at the local level after careful
consideration of the needs of the students involved and the resources available.

Factors to Consider in Selecting a Program Model

It is critical to consider several variables that will ultimately influence the type of program most
likely to be appropriate and effective in a given situation.

 District or school demographics. While some districts have a large population of students
from a single language background, others have several large groups of students, each
representing a different home language. Still others may have small numbers of students
from as many as 100 different language backgrounds scattered across grade levels and
schools. The total number of language minority students, the number of students from each
language background, and their distribution across grades and schools will influence the
selection of the type of program to meet the needs of district students (McKeon, 1987).
 Student characteristics. Some language minority students enter U.S. schools with strong
academic preparation in their native language that may equal or surpass that of their grade-
level peers in the United States. Others, however, may arrive in this country with little or no
school experience. Social, economic, and cultural factors in their home country may have
interrupted their schooling--if, indeed, they attended school at all. The needs of these
students are clearly much different from those of students with a solid academic
background (McKeon, 1987).
 District or school resources. Districts that have had a significant language minority
enrollment for many years will likely have teachers, aides, and administrators trained to
work with students who have limited English proficiency. They may be able to draw on a
large pool of bilingual personnel in the community to staff bilingual programs. Other
districts, faced with a sudden influx of students from one or more unfamiliar language
backgrounds, may have to scramble to find qualified teachers or volunteers.

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 Material resources will also influence the type of program that a district or school may be
able to provide. Districts with declining enrollments may have classroom space available for
magnet programs or ESL (English as a second language) resource centers. Other districts
may be so overcrowded they cannot even find a classroom to accommodate ESL pull-out
classes (McKeon, 1987).

ESL Program Models

ESL programs (rather than bilingual programs) are likely to be used in districts where the
language minority population is very diverse and represents many different languages. ESL
programs can accommodate students from different language backgrounds in the same class,
and teachers do not need to be proficient in the home language(s) of their students.

 ESL pull-out is generally used in elementary school settings. Students spend part of the
school day in a mainstream classroom, but are pulled out for a portion of each day to
receive instruction in English as a second language. Although schools with a large number of
ESL students may have a full-time ESL teacher, some districts employ an ESL teacher who
travels to several schools to work with small groups of students scattered throughout the
district.
 ESL class period is generally used in middle school settings. Students receive ESL instruction
during a regular class period and usually receive course credit. They may be grouped for
instruction according to their level of English proficiency.
 The ESL resource center is a variation of the pull-out design, bringing students together
from several classrooms or schools. The resource center concentrates ESL materials and
staff in one location and is usually staffed by at least one full-time ESL teacher.

Bilingual Program Models

All bilingual program models use the students' home language, in addition to English, for
instruction. These programs are most easily implemented in districts with a large number of
students from the same language background. Students in bilingual programs are grouped
according to their first language, and teachers must be proficient in both English and the
students' home language.
 Early-exit bilingual programs are designed to help children acquire the English skills
required to succeed in an English-only mainstream classroom. These programs provide
some initial instruction in the students' first language, primarily for the introduction of
reading, but also for clarification. Instruction in the first language is phased out rapidly, with
most students mainstreamed by the end of first or second grade. The choice of an early-exit
model may reflect community or parental preference, or it may be the only bilingual
program option available in districts with a limited number of bilingual teachers.
 Late-exit programs differ from early-exit programs "primarily in the amount and duration
that English is used for instruction as well as the length of time students are to participate in
each program" (Ramirez, Yuen, & Ramey, 1991). Students remain in late-exit programs
throughout elementary school and continue to receive 40% or more of their instruction in
their first language, even when they have been reclassified as fluent-English-proficient.

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 Two-way bilingual programs, also called developmental bilingual programs, group
language minority students from a single language background in the same classroom with
language majority (English-speaking) students. Ideally, there is a nearly 50/50 balance
between language minority and language majority students. Instruction is provided in both
English and the minority language. In some programs, the languages are used on alternating
days. Others may alternate morning and afternoon, or they may divide the use of the two
languages by academic subject. Native English speakers and speakers of another language
have the opportunity to acquire proficiency in a second language while continuing to
develop their native language skills. Students serve as native-speaker role models for their
peers. Two-way bilingual classes may be taught by a single teacher who is proficient in both
languages or by two teachers, one of whom is bilingual.

Other Program Models

Some programs provide neither instruction in the native language nor direct instruction in ESL.
However, instruction is adapted to meet the needs of students who are not proficient in
English.
 Sheltered English or content-based programs group language minority students from
different language backgrounds together in classes where teachers use English as the
medium for providing content area instruction, adapting their language to the proficiency
level of the students. They may also use gestures and visual aids to help students
understand. Although the acquisition of English is one of the goals of sheltered English and
content-based programs, instruction focuses on content rather than language.
 Structured immersion programs use only English, but there is no explicit ESL instruction. As
in sheltered English and content-based programs, English is taught through the content
areas. Structured immersion teachers have strong receptive skills in their students' first
language and have a bilingual education or ESL teaching credential. The teacher's use of the
children's first language is limited primarily to clarification of English instruction. Most
students are mainstreamed after 2 or 3 years.

Characteristics of an Effective Program

Researchers have identified a number of attributes that are characteristic of effective programs
for language minority students.

 Supportive whole-school contexts (Lucas, Henz, & Donato, 1990; Tikunoff et al., 1991).
 High expectations for language minority students, as evidenced by active learning
environments that are academically challenging (Collier, 1992; Lucas, Henze, & Donato,
1990; Pease-Alvarez, Garcia, & Espinosa, 1991).
 Intensive staff development programs designed to assist ALL teachers (not just ESL or
bilingual education teachers) in providing effective instruction to language minority
students (Lucas, Henze, & Donato, 1990; Tikunoff et al., 1991).
 Expert instructional leaders and teachers (Lucas, Henze, and Donato, 1990; Pease-Alvarez,
Garcia, & Espinosa, 1991; Tikunoff et al., 1991).
 Emphasis on functional communication between teacher and students and among fellow
students (Garcia, 1991).

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 Organization of the instruction of basic skills and academic content around thematic units
(Garcia, 1991).
 Frequent student interaction through the use of collaborative learning techniques (Garcia,
1991).
 Teachers with a high commitment to the educational success of all their students (Garcia,
1991).
 Principals supportive of their instructional staff and of teacher autonomy while maintaining
an awareness of district policies on curriculum and academic accountability (Garcia, 1991).
 Involvement of majority and minority parents in formal parent support activities (Garcia,
1991).

Conclusion
Successful program models for promoting the academic achievement of language minority
students are those that enable these students to develop academic skills while learning English.
The best program organization is one that is tailored to meet the linguistic, academic, and
affective needs of students; provides language minority students with the instruction necessary
to allow them to progress through school at a rate commensurate with their native-English-
speaking peers; and makes the best use of district and community resources.

References
Collier, V. P. (1992). A Synthesis of studies examining long-term language minority student data
on academic achievement. Bilingual Research Journal, 16, p. 187-212.
Garcia, E. (1991). Education of linguistically and culturally diverse students: Effective
instructional practices. Educational practice report number 1. Santa Cruz, CA and
Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language
Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 338 099)
Lucas T., Henze, R., & Donato, R. (1990). Promoting the success of Latino language minority
students: An Exploratory study of six high schools. Harvard Educational Review, 60 (1), 315-
340.
McKeon, D. (1987). Different types of ESL programs. ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: ERIC
Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics.
Pease-Alvarez, L., Garcia, E., & Espinosa, P. (1991). Effective instruction for language minority
students: An early childhood case study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6, 347-361.
Ramirez, J. D., Yuen, S. D., & Ramey, D. R. (1991). Longitudinal study of structured English
immersion strategy, early-exit, and late-exit transitional bilingual education programs for
language-minority children. San Mateo, CA: Aguirre International.
Tikunoff, W., Ward, B., van Broekhuizen, D., Romero, M., Castaneda, L.V., Lucas, T., & Katz, A.
(1991). A Descriptive study of significant features of exemplary special alternative
instructional programs. Washington: U. S. Department of Education, Office of Bilingual
Education and Minority Languages Affairs.

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 This Digest is based on an article published in the August 1993 issue of
Streamlined Seminar (Volume 12, Number 1), the newsletter of the
National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP). For
information on Streamlined Seminar or NAESP, write NAESP, 1615 Duke
Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-3483. The author acknowledges the
assistance of Denise McKeon of the National Clearinghouse for Bilingual
Education in the preparation of this report.

This report was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and
Improvement, U.S. Dept. of Education, under contract no. RR93002010. The opinions expressed
do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI or ED.

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