LECTURE 1: SOIL AND SOIL AGGREGATES & B.
FINE-GRAINED SOIL
ENGINEERING STONES o Poor load - sustaining qualities
o Highly impermeable
o Compressible under sustained load
SOIL AND SOIL AGGREGATES o Subject to change in volume and
strength due to variation in water
content
WHAT IS SOIL? C. ORGANIC SOIL
o Has low shear strength, which can be
The term Soil used by engineers, refers to the prone to instability under load
unconsolidated mineral materials at or near the earth's o Has a low bearing capacity, meaning it
surface, including the air, moisture, organic matter, and has insufficient support for structures
other substances that may be incorporated therein, o Sensitive to moisture changes
which may result from natural processes, such as o Inferior to fine-grained soil with respect
weathering, decay, and chemical reaction. to the properties stated under the latter
o Granular soils which include sand and gravel;
o Fine-grained soil which include silts and clay;
o Organic soils which include muck peat or organic THE FIVE GROUP CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOIL
silts. A. GRAVEL - Rounded or water-worn pebbles. No
cohesion or plasticity.
B. SAND - Gritty and loose grains. Individual grains
PARTICLE SIZE OF SOIL are readily seen and felt. No plasticity or
cohesion. If dry, a cast formed in the hand will
fall apart; if moist, a cast will crumble when
touched.
C. SILT - Fine and barely visible grains. When in a dry
pulverized condition, it feels soft and floury. Can
hardly be made plastic. Exhibits little or no
strength when air-dried. A dried cast is easily
crushed in the hands.
D. CLAY - Can be made plastic by adjusting its water
content. Exhibits considerable strength when
air-dried; difficult or impossible to crush in
hands. Clay can be molded and rolled into thin
threads without breaking or crumbling within a
THE THREE MAJOR DIVISIONS OF SOIL moderate to wide range in water content, and
A. GRANULAR SOIL threads of considerable length will support their
o Good load-bearing qualities weight when held by one hand.
o Permeable, hence they drain readily E. ORGANIC SOILS - Gray to black color. Fibrous
o Comparatively incompressible when structure due to the presence of undecomposed
subjected to static loads plant matter. Unhealthy sewage sludge odor. It
o Not subject to changes in strength or is found as deposits in swamps and peat bogs.
volume due to variation in water
content. However, loose granular
materials will undergo a considerable
reduction in volume if subjected to
vibratory loads
WHAT IS AN AGGREGATE? traditional aggregates, radiation attenuation for use in
nuclear and medical facilities, higher compressive
Aggregates are the most mined material in the world.
strength, options of natural materials like magnetite or
Aggregate is a broad-encompassing boulder, cobbles,
manufactured materials with high specific gravity, and
crushed stone, gravel, air-cooled blast furnace slag,
often a higher cost compared to lightweight aggregates
native and manufactured sands, and manufactured and
due to the materials used.
natural lightweight aggregates. Aggregates may be
further described by their respective sizes. Heavyweight aggregates include magnetite, with a
specific gravity of 4.3; barite 4.2; limonite 3.8;
ferrophosphorus 6.3; and steel shot or punching 7.6.
THE TWO TYPES OF AGGREGATES Such heavyweight aggregates may be used instead of
gravel or crushed stone to produce a dense concrete for
A. NORMAL WEIGHT AGGREGATE example, for shielding of nuclear reactions.
These typically have specific gravities between 2.0 and
3.0. They are usually distinguished by size as follows:
GRADATION OF AGGREGATES
o Boulders - Larger than 6 in.
o Cobbles - 6 to 3 in. The distribution of aggregate sizes in a concrete mix is
o Coarse aggregate - 3 in. to No. 4 sieve important because it directly influences the amount of
o Fine aggregate - No. 4 sieve to No. 200 sieve cement required for a given strength, workability of the
o Mineral filler - Material passing No. 200 sieve 2 mix (and amount of effort to place the mix in the forms),
in-place durability, and overall economy. ASTM C33
Used in most concrete construction, normal-weight provides ranges of fine- and coarse-aggregate grading
aggregates are obtained by draining riverbeds or mining limits.
and crunching formational material. Concrete made with
normal-weight fine and coarse aggregates generally
weights about 144 lb. / ft3. Boulders and cobbles are
WHAT IS ASTM?
generally not used in their as-mined size but are crushed
to make various sizes of coarse aggregate and American Society for Testing and Materials
manufactured sand and mineral filler.
Aggregates comprise the greatest volume percentage in
THE SEVEN PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES
portland-cement concrete, mortar, or asphaltic
concrete. In a Portland-cement concrete mix, the coarse A. HARDNESS – Coarse–aggregate hardness is
and fine aggregates occupy about 60 to 75% of the total measured by the Los Angeles Abrasion Test,
mix volume. For asphaltic concrete, the aggregates ASTM C131 or C595. These tests break the
represent 75 to 85% of the mix volume. aggregate down by impacting it with steel balls
in a steel tumbler. The resulting breakdown is
B. LIGHTWEIGHT AND HEAVYWEIGHT AGGREGATE
not directly related to the abrasion an aggregate
Lightweight aggregates, materials with low density used receives in service, but the results can be
in construction and derived from natural resources or empirically related to concretes exhibiting
industrial by-products, exhibit characteristics such as service lives.
significantly lower density than traditional aggregates, B. SOUNDNESS – Aggregate soundness is measured
high porosity contributing to their lightweight nature, by ASTM C88, "Test Method for Soundness of
thermal insulation properties, generally lower Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or
compressive strength, and options like expanded shale, Magnesium Sulfate." This test measures the
clay, or industrial by-products. amount of aggregate degradation when exposed
to alternating cycles of wetting and drying in a
In contrast, heavyweight aggregates, chosen for
sulfate solution.
enhanced density and radiation shielding in construction,
have characteristics including much higher density than
C. PARTICLE SHAPE – Natural sand and gravel have CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES BASED ON UNIT
a round, smooth particle shape. Crushed WEIGHT
aggregate (coarse and fine) may have shapes
that are flat and elongated, angular, cubical, disk,
or rodlike. These shapes result from the crushing
equipment employed and the aggregate
mineralogy. Extreme angularity and elongation
increase the amount of cement required to give
strength, difficulty in finishing, and effort
required to pump the concrete. Flat and
elongated particles also increase the amount of
required mixing water. The bond between
angular particles is greater than that between
smooth particles.
D. POTENTIAL ALKALI REACTIVITY – Aggregates that
contain forms of silicas or carbonates may react ENGINEERING STONES
with the alkalines present in Portland cement
(sodium oxide and potassium oxide). The
reaction product cracks the concrete or may THE FIVE PARAMETERS CONSIDERED IN SELECTING A
create pop-outs at the concrete surface. GOOD CONSTRUCTION STONE
E. RESISTANCE TO FREEZING AND THAWING – The
A. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION – Using/selecting a
pore structure, absorption, porosity and
permeability of aggregates are especially stone for construction, its chemical properties
important if they are used to make concrete and composition must be tested and verified
exposed to repeated cycles of freezing and because different elements and compounds in
thawing. Aggregates that become critically stones have different properties.
saturated and then freeze cannot accommodate B. STRONGNESS AND HARDNESS – The more
the expansion of the frozen water. compact grained and heavier a stone, the
F. IMPURITIES IN AGGREGATES – Erratic setting stronger it is. The specific gravity of good stone
times and rates of hardening may be caused by should be above 2.7. Stones used for road metal,
paving blocks, floor slabs and railway ballast
organic impurities in the aggregates, primarily
the sand. Pop-outs and reduced durability can be have to withstand mainly abrasion or wear and
tear.
caused by soft particles, chert, clay lumps and
other friable particles, coal, lignite, or other C. RESISTANCE TO HEAT – Resistance to heat means
lightweight materials in the aggregates. that the stone must have a very low amount of
G. VOLUME STABILITY – It refers to susceptibility of expansion due to large increase in temperature.
aggregates to expansion when heated or to D. BIO-DETERIORATION – Certain trees and
cyclic expansion and contraction when saturated creepers thrust their roots in the joints of stones
and dried. Aggregates that are susceptible to and have both mechanical and chemical adverse
volume change due to moisture should be effects. Special microbes can grow on the surface
avoided. and in minute fissures, their by-products cause
flaking and discoloration.
E. APPEARANCE – The aesthetic aspect that is color,
appearance, and show of stones must also be
considered when being used in a project.
Appearance depends on the color and the ease
with which the stone can be dressed, rubbed or
polished.
THE THREE GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF STONES According to Grain size
o +0 Big grain, High pressure
A. SEDIMENTARY o 00 Med grain, Med pressure
Characteristics: o -0 Small grain, Low pressure
o Sandstone, limestone, dolomite
originally formed mainly in sea water, or
lakes, from the remains of animals and C. IGNEOUS
plants, also from transportation and Characteristics:
deposition of rock products. Rounded o Intrusive - subsurface crystallization
and Angular in shape. o Extrusive- above surface crystallization
o Mineral content
Classifications:
o Grain size, Plutonic >3/16" coarse.
o Detrital is made from disintegrated pre- Extrusive 1/64" - 3/16" Medium and <
existing rock. 1/64" fine
o Biogenetic is made from shells and other o Crystal shape
fossilized fragments. o Texture % A, %B, crystal angle
o Chemical is made from chemical o Color
precipitation.
Classifications:
B. METAMORPHIC o Acid rocks > 65% Si + > 10% Modal
Characteristics: Quartz
Marble, serpentine, onyx, slate, quartzite, gneiss o Intermediate rocks 55% - 65% Si
are produced from sedimentary or igneous rocks o Basic rocks 45% - 55% Si < 10% Modal
by the action of heat and pressure. Quartz
o No pressure - fossils survive o Ultra-Basic < 45% Si
o Low pressure - fossils distorted or
destroyed
o Moderate pressure - Grains form TEST OF STONES
moderately
o High pressure - Active fluids may Once a stone has been selected on aesthetic basis, it is
circulate important than to ensure whether it exhibits the
o Heat alone, Metamorphic Aureole necessary physical properties and durability to remain in
surrounding a deep plutonic intrusions, working condition for a long time. Fixing method
possibly with active fluids adopted for the construction of stones also affects the
o Dynamic Meta - Large scale movement type of stones selected. Physical properties such as
phenomena density, compressive strength and porosity are
o Crushing actions produce Xylonite Meta measured in order to determine its durability.
rock from powder
o Low angle thrust fault: Plate pressure
coupled with subsidence
o Thrust movement, plate movement
Classifications:
According to Structure
o Contact type is crystalline
o Regional type is usually foliated
APPLICATIONS AND USES OF STONES APPLICATIONS AND USES OF AGGREGATES
USES OF STONES USES OF AGGREGATES – The uses of aggregates can be
summarized in to the following three categories:
o Sandstone is a popular stone with sculptors.
o Good and durable construction material o As a Load Bearing Material
o Thresholds and steps in manor houses o As a Filling Material
o War memorials in the 19th and 20th centuries o As an Infiltrating Material
o Limestone for burning lime and also for
USES OF AGGREGATES IN CONCRETE – The purpose of
manufacture of cement
aggregates in concrete is:
o Limestone as a flux in blast furnaces
o Insulators in electrical appliances o To provide a rigid structure
o To reduce the shrinkage and cracking
BUILDING STONES
o Concrete aggregate is used in many structures
o Millions of tons of crushed rock are needed and substructures e.g. different elements of a
annually for road base, paving, ready-mixed Building, bridges, foundations
concrete and asphalt. o The smaller the aggregate size the greater its
o Sandstone which is not so hard-wearing or surface area and the more binding material
beautifully patterned is used for garden walls (cement) will be required, resulting in a higher
and paths in landscaping. cost
o Basalt: It is quarried and crushed as "Blue Metal" o The greater the aggregate size the larger will be
which is used as a road-base, and in reinforced the voids, resulting in wastage of binding
concrete as aggregate. material (cement)
o Although wood, straw and mud is used for
USES OF AGGREGATES IN RAILWAY BALLAST
houses in some parts of the world, most
buildings are preferred to be built of stones. o A fully loaded train weighs in thousands of tons.
o Building wells. To avoid damage to the rails, ground and other
o Material for foundation and walling of buildings, nearby structures a very tough aggregate is
dams, bridges, etc. needed not only to support this high weight but
o Aggregate also to distribute and transfer it properly to the
o Stone walls ground.
o Roof tile in the form of slates o Railway ballast generally consists of a tough
o Murram for covering and flooring of road surface igneous rock (crushed), such as granite, with a
o Limestone for burning lime and for the larger diameter varying between 30mm to
manufacture of Portland cement 50mm. Particles finer than this diameter in
o Shale is a component of bricks and may also be higher proportion will reduce its drainage
used in manufacturing of cement. properties. While a higher proportion of larger
o Nite, another stone type is used for architectural particles result in the load on the ties being
construction, ornamental stones and distributed improperly.
monuments.
o Marble is widely used in construction industry,
for aesthetic purposes, beautification and
strength
