F

R
A
R’ N
B
V

 α : Rack angle  Fc: Cutting Force

 : Frictional angle  Fs: Shear Force
 : Shear angle  F: Frictional Force
 Ft : Thrust Force  N: Normal Frictional Force
 Fn: Normal Shear Force  V: Feed velocity
Fs , Resistance to shear of the metal in forming the chip. It acts
along the shear plane.
 Fn , ‘Backing up’ force on the chip provided by the
workpiece. Acts normal to the shear plane.
N, It at the tool chip interface normal to the cutting face of the tool
and is provided by the tool.
F, It is the frictional resistance of the tool acting on the chip. It acts
downward against the motion of the chip as it glides upwards along
the tool face.
 Length of shear plane, AB =

Area of shear plane , = AB

Shear force on the shear plane , = . = .

Normal force on the shear plane , = . = .

As chip is moving with constant velocity , net resultant force on the chip must be zero.

Hence , R’= R
 Merchant’s Circle Diagram is
constructed to ease the analysis of
cutting forces acting during
orthogonal (Two Dimensional)
cutting of work piece.

Merchant do this scientific

analysis for the first time in 1941
and gives the following relation in
1944

 It is convenient to determine
various force and angles.
 Tool edge is sharp.
 The work material undergoes deformation across a
thin shear plane.
 There is uniform distribution of normal and shear
stress on shear plane.
 The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.
 The shear angle adjusts itself to minimum work.
 The friction angle remains constant and is
independent of .
 The chip width remains constant.
 The chip does not flow to side, or there is no side
spread.
 =
(frictional angle)

Fs
Fn α
N φ V
Fc
𝜷 −α
Ft
α
R
𝛽 F

N
If
=N

A
R’
B
V

R
Fs
Fn φ
Fc 𝛽 −α

Ft
R F
N, will form a rectangle

𝛽
N
If 𝟎

N, will form a Square

=N =

Fs

Fc
Fn
Ft

R F
𝛽

N
 Proof:-
*

Where,

Now shear plane angle Fs

Fn α
Fc φ V
The average stresses on the 𝛽-α
Ft φ
shear plane area are: R α
𝛽 F

N
 *
Fs
Fn α
Fc φ V
𝛽-α
Ft φ
R α
𝛽 F
=
N
Assuming that is independent of
, for max. shear stress
=0
∅

- =0
Analysis of cutting forces is helpful as:-

 Design of stiffness etc. for the machine tolerance.

Whether work piece can withstand the cutting force
can be predicted.
In study of behavior and machinability
characterization of the work piece.
Estimation of cutting power consumption, which
also enables selection of the power source(s) during
design of the machine tool.
Condition monitoring of the cutting tools and
machine tool.
Proper use of MCD enables the followings :-

Easy, quick and reasonably accurate determination

of several other forces from a few forces involved in
machining.

Friction at chip-tool interface and dynamic yield

shear strength can be easily determined.

Equations relating the different forces are easily

developed.
Some limitations of use of MCD are :-

Merchant’s Circle Diagram (MCD) is valid only for

orthogonal cutting.

By the ratio, F/N, the MCD gives apparent (not

actual) coefficient of friction.

 It is based on single shear plane theory.

Following conclusions/results are drawn from MCD :-

 Shear angle is given by

For practical purpose, the following values of has

been suggested:

= α for α>15o
= 15o for α<15o
Theory of Lee and Shaffer – they applied the theory of plasticity for an ideal
rigid- plastic body

Theory of Stabler –
The force relations (VIMP)

F = Fc sin Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin

FN = Fc sin Ft cos
Fs = Fc cos Ft sin
GATE 2010
In orthogonal turning of an engineering alloy, it has been
observed that the friction force acting at the chip tool
interface is 402.5 N and the friction force is also
perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector. The feed
velocity is negligibly small with respect to the cutting
velocity. The ratio of friction force to normal force
associated with the chip tool interface is 1. The uncut
chip thickness is 0.2 mm and the chip thickness is 0.4
mm. The cutting velocity is 2 m/s.
The shear force (in N) acting along the primary shear
plane is (a) 180.0 (b) 240.0 (c) 360.5 (d) 402.5
GATE 2013
In orthogonal turning of a bar of 100 mm diameter
with a feed of 0.25 mm/rev, depth of cut of 4 mm
and cutting velocity of 90 m/min, it is observed
that the main (tangential)cutting force is
perpendicular to friction force acting at the chip
tool interface. The main (tangential) cutting force
is 1500 N.
The normal force acting at the chip tool interface in N is
(a) 1000 (b) 1500 (c) 20oo (d) 2500
GATE 2013
In orthogonal turning of a bar of 100 mm diameter
with a feed of 0.25 mm/rev, depth of cut of 4 mm
and cutting velocity of 90 m/min, it is observed
that the main (tangential)cutting force is
perpendicular to friction force acting at the chip
tool interface. The main (tangential) cutting force
is 1500 N.
The normal force acting at the chip tool interface in N is
(a) 1000 (b) 1500 (c) 20oo (d) 2500
GATE 2017 ; The Merchant circle diagram
showing various forces associated with a cutting
process using a wedge shaped
tool is given in the Figure.
The coefficient of friction can be
estimated from the ratio
f1/f3
(a)
(b) f2/f4
f5/f6
(c)
f6/f5
(d)
 Metal Removal Rate (MRR):-
𝟑
Metal removal rate (MRR) = Ac.V = b .t. V = f.d.V (

Where,
Ac = cross section area of uncut chip (mm2) V = cutting speed = DN ,
mm / min, f = feed (mm/rev)

Q. A medium carbon steel workpiece is turned on a lathe at 50

m/min. cutting speed 0.8 mm/rev feed and 1.5 mm depth of cut.
What is the rate of metal removal?
(a) 1000 mm3/min
(b) 60,000 mm3/min
(c) 20,000 mm3/min
(d) Can not be calculated with the given data (IES 2004)
Q. A steel bar 200 mm in diameter is turned at a feed of 0.25 mm/rev
with a depth of cut of 4 mm. The rotational speed of the workpiece is
160 rpm. The material removal rate in mm3/s is
(a) 160 (b) 167.6 (c) 1600 (d) 1675.5 (GATE 2013)

Q. A 125 mm long, 10 mm diameter stainless steel rod is being turned

to 9 mm diameter, 0.5 mm depth of cut. The spindle rotates at 360
rpm. With the tool traversing at an axial speed of 175 mm/min, the
metal removal rate is nearly.
(a) 2200 mm / min
3
(b) 2400 mm / min
3

(c) 2600 mm / min

3
(d) 2800 mm / min
3

(IES 2004)
Power Consumed During Cutting:-

F.Vc
A

B
Where,
Fc = cutting force (in N)

V = cutting speed = , m/s

Total power= shearing power+ frictional power

= + F.Vc
(65-70%) (30-35%)
 Specific Energy/Power Consumption(

Conventional m/c) ex.lathe, milling – 2-3 j/mm3

Grinding- 50 j/mm3
ECM- 500 j/mm3
Q. Amount of energy consumption per unit volume of metal removal is
maximum in
(a) Turning (b) Milling (c) Reaming (d) Grinding GATE(PI) 1991

Q. In orthogonal turning of medium carbon steel. The specific

machining energy is 2.0 J/mm3. The cutting velocity, feed and depth
of cut are 120 m/min, 0.2 mm/rev and 2 mm respectively. The main
cutting force in N is
(a) 40 (b) 80 (c) 400 (d) 800 GATE 2007

Q. A disc of 200 mm outer and 80 mm inner diameter is faced of 0.1

mm/rev with a depth of cut of 1 mm. The facing operation is
undertaken at a constant cutting speed of 90 m/min in a CNC lathe.
The main (tangential) cutting force is 200 N.
Neglecting the contribution of the feed force towards cutting power,
the specific cutting energy in J/mm3 is

(a) 0.2 (b) 2 (c) 200 (d) 2000 GATE 2013

 Cutting Fluids: Functions,
Properties
 Cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant designed specifically for
metalworking processes, such as machining.

 There are various kinds of cutting fluids, which include oils, oil-water
emulsions, pastes, gels, aerosols (mists), and air or other gases.

 They may be made from petroleum distillates, animal fats, plant oils, water
and air, or other raw ingredients.

 it may be referred to as cutting fluid, cutting oil, cutting compound, coolant,

or lubricant.
*
 Cutting fluid cools the work piece and tool by carrying away the heat
generated during machining.
 It acts as lubricant at the friction zones, hence tool life increases.

 Using cutting fluids produces better surface finish to the work piece.

 It causes to break the chips into small pieces.

 It washes away the chips from the tool.

 It prevents the corrosion of chips and machine.

 Improves dimensional accuracy and control on the work piece.

 It permits maximum cutting speed hence the time for machining reduce
and cost of manufacturing increases.
 As friction gets reduced, the forces and electricity power consumption
decreases.
 Cutting fluids should have low viscosity to permit free flow of the
liquid.

 It should possess good lubricating properties.

 It should have high specific heat and high thermal conductivity.

 It should be non-corrosive to work and machine.

 It should be non-toxic to operating person.

 It should be odourless.

 It should stable in use and storage.

 It should be safe.

 It should permit clear view of the work operation.

*

The Four Main Types of Cutting Fluids:-

1. Straight cutting oils
2. Synthetic fluids/Oil with additives
3. Soluble oils/Water miscible cutting fluid
4. Semi-synthetic fluids
*
Mineral oil Polyalphaolefin (PAO) Lubricants
*
* These oils are non-emulsifiable and very useful in machining operations where they
function in undiluted form.

* There are three type mainly – 1) Mineral Oil 2) Fatty oil 3) Combination of mineral
and fatty oils

* These oils have good lubricating properties but poor heat absorption quality.

* The heat transfer rates achieved by their application are the lowest among
cutting fluids. Hence these are only suitable for low cutting speeds.

* Their composition is a base mineral or even petroleum oil. Often they contain
polar lubricants like vegetable oils, fats and esters.

* They may also contain extreme pressure additives including sulphur and chlorine

* To achieve the best lubrication use straight oils however they may have poor
cooling characteristics.
*
* They do not contain mineral oil base or petroleum.
* Instead, they’re formulated from the alkaline organic and inorganic
compounds alongside additives to prevent corrosion.
* They function well in their diluted form.
* Of all the varieties of cutting fluids, synthetic fluids offer the best cooling
performance.
*
* Soluble Oils usually form an emulsion after mixing them with water.

* These are also called water-based cutting fluids.

* These comprises of mineral oils, fat mixtures and emulsifiers added

to water.
* The oil is held in the form of microscopic droplets in water, which
assume a white milky appearance.

* For higher heat transfer, light mixtures may be made.

* For high lubricity, richer mixtures of oil with water would be

necessary.

* The mixtures may be from 1:5 to 1:100 of oil to water.

*
* These fluids are basically a combination of the soluble oils
and synthetic fluids.
* Besides, the heat transfer performance and cost of the semi-
synthetic fluids falls between those of the soluble and
synthetic fluids.
*
i) Base Oil
ii) Emulsifier
iii) Corrosion inhibitor (Non-Ferrous alloys) and rust
inhibitor (for ferrous alloys)
iv) Lubricating, Anti wear and extreme pressure
additives
v) Neutralizing agents
vi) Biocides and fungicides
vii) Stabilizing agent
viii) Foam inhibitors
 *
Additive Function
(i) Mineral oils and other Base oils
hydrocarbons

(ii) Polyglycoether (for water Emulsifier

soluble oils)
(iii) Aliphatic amines(for water Neutralizing agent
soluble oils)
(iv) Aliphatic amines in neutralized Corrosion protection
form
(v) Sulfonates Corrosion protection and Extreme
pressure additive

(vi) Fatty acid amides Lubricity improvment

(vii) Sulfur / Phosphorous Extreme pressure additives Biocides
compounds
(viii) Aldyhyde Derivatives ( for Biocides
water based coolants)
*
*
1. Flooding : Flow rates = 10L/min for single point tools to 225L/min per cutter
for multiple tooth cutters. In drilling and milling, fluid pressures in the range
from 700 to 14,000 kPa are used to flush away the chips produced, to prevent
interfering with the operation. Poor Visibility

2. Mist : fluid is supplied to inaccessible areas, better visibility of the

workpiece, effective with water based fluids & in grinding operations
at air pressures of 70-600 kPa, requires venting, limited cooling
capacity. Popular because of good visibility

3. High pressure systems: high-pressure coolant systems (nozzles) is used,

5.5MPa-35MPa, acts as a chip-breaker to clear debris away.
*
* Magnesium Alloy:- mineral oil of low viscosity may be used.
* High-Strength Steels: Sulfurized mineral oils, fatty oil or water-soluble
emulsion with high percentage of oil may be used.
* Copper: Soluble oil with 90 to 95% of water is used.
* Aluminium: Mineral oil with soluble oil cutting fluids are used as
cutting fluids
* Stainless Steels:- For low-speed operations, such as broaching, tapping
etc. mineral oils with additives may be used. For high- speed speed
machining operations, water-soluble fluids are generally used.
Types of Wear:

 Flank wear(wear land)

 Crater wear

 The crater wear occurs on the rake surface over the region of
highest temperature. The
 flank wear occurs on the clearance face (also called flank face)
under the cutting edge due to rubbing of machined surface with the
tool. This wear Occurs progressively from tip downwards.
Flank Wear

 Flank wear is usually evaluated in terms of the length of wear land

which can be measured by means of a measuring microscope.
 Tool-work piece interface
 Predominant at low speed
Some Experiments Results :

Fig. 3 Flank wear versus time curve for dry turning

(a) cutting speed, v = 135 m/min, feed, f = 0.32 mm/rev, depth of cut, d
= 0.3 mm
(b) v = 270 m/min, f = 0.32 mm/rev, d = 1.2 mm
CRATER WEAR

 The crater wear is evaluated in terms of the depth of crater and the
shape is assumed to be segment of an arc.

 At low cutting speed, the cutting edge is protected from the action
of the chip because of the formation of a stable built-up-edge.

 At high cutting speed diffusion plays a major role.

 The maximum temperature at the chip-tool interface appears to

exist at some distance from the tool edge.

 At higher speed the crater wear is predominant than flank wear

because diffusion is a temperature sensitive phenomenon.
Fig. Variation of maximum crater depth with cutting time
 TOOL LIFE
A tool that no longer performs the desired function is said to have
failed.

The tool life can be defined in following ways:

• Cutting time to failure
• Cutting length to failure
• Volume of material removed to failure
• Number of components produced to failure

Various ways in which tool failure can he identified :

Wear land size, depth of crater, tool wear volume, magnitude of
cutting forces, surface finish value, change in component size, total
destruction of tool

VARIABLES AFFECTING TOOL LIFE

a. The cutting conditions
b. The tool geometry
c. The tool material
d. The work material
e. The cutting fluid
CUTTING CONDITION:
• Experimentally, it is found that the rate of wear increases as cutting
speed is increased.
• The wear land-cutting time curves are obtained at various cutting speeds
(Figure )
• From curves such as these, the tool life at various cutting speeds for a
critical wear-land size Lw*, can be obtained.

• Taylor tool life equation

…(1)
where V = cutting speed
T = tool life
n and C are constants

Fig. Wear land growth at different cutting

speed
• The variables speed, feed and depth of cut, affect the material removal rate
and hence have a direct bearing on the production cost. The above equation
can be rewritten to show the effect of cutting speed as:

…..(2)

• Tool life can also be expressed as:

Modified Taylor’s tool life equation

VT n d n f n  C
1 2
…..(3)

where V is the cutting speed,

f is the feed
d is depth of cut
T is the tool life,
n, n1 and n2 are Taylor exponent.
n, n and n and C are constants depends on
work material, feed, depth of cut and cutting spe
Example
A steel bar of 40mm diameter is to be turned over a length of
200mm with a depth of cut 1.2mm and feed of 0.2mm/rev at
200rpm. If the tool life equation is given by

VT d 0 .2 0 .13
f 0 .31
= 40

Determine the number of components that may be turned before

regrinding the tool.
Tool Geometry:

RAKE ANGLE:
• Increasing the rake angle reduces the cutting forces and the cutting
temperature resulting in increased tool life.

Fig. 7 Effect of rake angle on tool life for work material of different flow stress

• When the tool rake angle is large, although the cutting forces are lower,
the tool edge is weakened resulting in increased failure to chipping off the
cutting edge.
• Hence, there is an optimum rake angle which gives the maximum tool life.
FLANK ANGLE

• Increasing the flank angle reduces rubbing between the tool and the workpiece
and hence improves the tool life.
• Too high a value, however, weakens the tool and reduces its life.
• The optimum value of flank angle is also affected by the feed rate
• higher the feed rate lower is the optimum value

Fig. Effect of flank angle on tool life at different feed rate

SIDE CUTTING EDGE ANGLE
• For a given feed and depth of cut, the length of the engaged cutting edge
increases with increase in the side cutting-edge angle.
• This gives lower cutting temperature and increases the tool life.

Fig. Effect of side cutting-edge angle on tool life for work materials
of different flow stress
NOSE RADIUS :-

• A nose radius on the tool is favorable for long tool life.

• A nominally sharp tool is highly stressed at the tip and has short tool life.

• An increase in nose radius, therefore, improves the tool life.

• Increase in nose radius also increases the cutting forces and is conducive to
chatter.

• From these considerations nose radii in the range of 0.5-2.5 mm are used
most often.
TOOL MATERIALS

1. Hot hardness:- Maintaining hardness at elevated temperatures.

2. Tough enough to withstand shock and fracture.
3. Should have high resistance to wearing action.
4. Coefficient of friction should be low.
5. Thermal conductivity and specific heat should be high.
6. Thermal expansion should be low
7. Easier in fabrication and cheap in cost

• A wide variety of cutting tool materials are still in use and the common ones
are:
a) Carbon tool steel
b) High-speed steel
c) Cast non-ferrous alloys
d) Cemented carbides
e) Sintered oxides
• Carbon tool steel:- Contains 0.9 to 1.2% carbon and some alloying elements.
High carbon steel has 0.9% C + 0.6% Mn + rest Fe — little use in today

• High-speed steel (HSS) are alloy steels:- Mainly consisting of about 18%
tungsten, 4% chromium, 0.75% C, 0.6% Mn and 1% vanadium

• 'Moly'HSS:- tungsten is partially replaced by molybdenum • 8% molybdenum,

4% chromium, 1.5% tungsten, 0.6% Mn and 1% vanadium.

• Super HSS:- 12% cobalt is added for better hot hardness and resistance to
abrasion with some sacrifice in toughness.

• Cast non-ferrous alloys :- 43-48% cobalt, 17-19% tungsten, 30-35% chromium

and about 2% carbon.
 IES – 1995
Crater wear is predominant
in
(a) Carbon steel tools
(b) Tungsten carbide tools
(c) High speed steel tools
(d) Ceramic tools
 IES – 2002
Crater wear on tools always starts at
some distance from the tool tip because
at that point

(a) Cutting fluid does not penetrate

(b) Normal stress on rake face is
maximum
(c) Temperature is maximum
(d) Tool strength is minimum
IES – 2000
Crater wear starts at some distance from the
tool tip
Because

(a) Cutting fluid cannot penetrate that region

(b) Stress on rake face is maximum at that
region
(c) Tool strength is minimum at that region
(d) Tool temperature is maximum at that region
IAS – 2002
Consider the following actions:
1. Mechanical abrasion 2. Diffusion
3. Plastic deformation 4. Oxidation
Which of the above are the causes of tool
wear?

(a) 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2

(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 3
IES – 1995
Match List I with List II and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:

List I (Wear type) List II (Associated

mechanism)
A. Abrasive wears 1. Galvanic action
B. Adhesive wears 2. Ploughing action
C. Electrolytic wear 3. Molecular transfer
D. Diffusion wears 4. Plastic
deformation
5. Metallic bond

Code: A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 5 1 3 (b) 5 2 1 3
IES – 2008
In Taylor's tool life equation is V = constant.
What is the value of n for ceramic tools?

(a) 0.15 to 0.25 (b) 0.4 to 0.55

(c) 0.6 to 0.75 (d) 0.8 to 0.9
IES-2016
In a machining test, a cutting speed of 100 m/min indicated the tool life as 16
min and a cutting speed of 200 m/min indicated the tool life as 4 min. The
values of n and C are
(a) 0.5 and 200 (b) 0.25 and 200
(c) 0.5 and 400 (d) 0.25 and 400
GATE -2009 (PI)
In an orthogonal machining operation, the tool life obtained is 10 min at a
cutting speed of 100 m/min, while at 75 m/min cutting speed, the tool life is
30 min. The value of index (n) in the Taylor’s tool life equation

(a) 0.262 (b) 0.323 (c) 0.423

(d) 0.521
GATE-2004, IES-2000
In a machining operation, doubling the cutting speed reduces the tool life to
1/8 th of the original value. The exponent n in Taylor's tool life equation
V 𝒏 = C, is

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
(b) (c)
𝟖 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐
GATE-2010
For tool A, Taylor’s tool life exponent (n) is 0.45 and constant (K) is 90.
Similarly for tool B, n = 0.3 and K= 60. The cutting speed in (m/min) above
which tool A will have a higher tool life than tool B is

(a) 26.7 (b) 42.5 (c) 80.7 (d) 142.9

GATE-2003
A batch of 10 cutting tools could produce 500 components while working at 50
rpm with a tool feed of 0.25 mm/rev and depth of cut of 1 mm. A similar batch
of 10 tools of the same specification could produce 122 components while
working at 80 rpm with a feed of 0.25 mm/rev and 1 mm depth of cut. How
many components can be produced with one cutting tool at 60 rpm?

(a) 29 (b) 31 (c) 37 (d) 42

GATE-2016
The tool life equation for HSS tool is 𝟎.𝟏𝟒 𝟎.𝟕 𝟎.𝟒 . The tool life (T) of 30
min is obtained using the following cutting conditions: V = 45 m/min, f = 0.35
mm, d = 2.0 mm. If speed (V), feed(f) and depth of cut (d) are increased
individually by 25%, the tool life (inmin) is
(a) 0.15 (b) 1.06 (c) 22.50 (d) 30.0
IES 2009 Conventional
Determine the optimum cutting speed for an operation on a Lathe machine using
the following information:
Tool change time: 3 min
Tool regrinds time: 3 min
Machine running cost Rs.0.50 per min
Depreciation of tool regrinds Rs. 5.0
The constants in the tool life equation are 60 and 0.2
GATE-2016
For a certain job, the cost of metal cutting is Rs. 18C/V and the cost of
tooling is Rs. 270C/(TV), where C is a constant, V is cutting speed in m/min
and T is the tool life in minutes. The Taylor’s tool life equation is V 𝟎.𝟐𝟓 =
150. The cutting speed (in
m/min) for the minimum total cost is ________
GATE-2014
If the Taylor’s tool life exponent n is 0.2, and the tool changing time is 1.5
min, then the tool life (inmin) for maximum production rate is ……………….