Part - V

Merchants Theory

Oct 2023
Outline:

» Types of Metal Cutting

» Mechanics of Metal cutting

» Merchant theory: Merchant circle diagram and

analysis
5.1. Types of Metal Cutting

 In metal cutting operation, the position of cutting edge

of the cutting tool is important based on which the cutting

operation is classified.

 The two basic methods of metal cutting using a single

point tool are:

1. Orthogonal Cutting (2-D Cutting) and

2. Oblique Cutting (3-D Cutting).

i. Orthogonal Cutting
The cutting edge of the tool remains

normal to the direction of tool feed or

work feed.

The direction of the chip flow velocity is

normal to the cutting edge of the tool.

Here only two components of forces are

acting: Cutting Force and Thrust Force.

So the metal cutting may be considered as

a two dimensional cutting.

For example: Lathe cut-off

operation, straight milling, etc.

 ii. Oblique Cutting
# The cutting edge of the tool remains

inclined at an acute angle to the direction

of tool feed or work feed.

# The direction of the chip flow velocity is at

an angle with the normal to the cutting

edge of the tool. The angle is known as chip

flow angle.

# Here three components of forces are

acting: Cutting Force, Radial force and

Thrust Force or feed force. So the metal

cutting may be considered as a three

dimensional cutting.
 Cont’d…

a) Orthogonal Cutting b) Oblique cutting

 5.2. Mechanics of Metal Cutting

» Mechanics of metal cutting deals with the study of metal cutting process

and accurate estimation of dynamic cutting forces by the use of suitable

analytical models.

» Knowing or determination of the cutting forces facilitate or are required for:

> Estimation of cutting power consumption, which also enables selection

of the power source(s) during design of the machine tools.

> Structural design of the machine - fixture - tool system.

> Evaluation of role of the various machining parameters (process - VC, f,

doc, tool - material and geometry, environment - cutting fluid) on cutting

forces.

> Study of behaviour and machinability characterization of the work

materials.
Cutting force components and their significances

» The single point cutting tools being used for turning,

shaping, planing, slotting, boring etc. are characterized

by having only one cutting force during machining.

» But that force is resolved into two or three

components for ease of analysis and exploitation.

» Fig. visualizes how the single cutting force in turning is

resolved into three components along the three

orthogonal directions; X, Y and Z.

 Cont’d…

Significance of PZ, PX and PY

The resultant cutting force, R is resolved as, » PZ: called the main or major
component as it is the largest in
magnitude. It is also called power
component as it being acting along
and being multiplied by VC decides
is tangential component/main cutting force=taken in cutting power (PZ.VC)
the direction of Z-axis consumption.
» PY: may not be that large in
Px = Feed force=axial component taken in the direction
of x-axis magnitude but is responsible for
Py = radial/transverse component taken in the directioncausing dimensional inaccuracy
of y-axis and vibration.
 5.3. Merchant Theory: Merchant’s Circle
Diagram
» The following is a circle diagram known as Merchant’s circle

diagram, which is convenient to determine the relation between

the various forces and angles.

» In the diagram two force triangles have been combined and R and

R’ together have been replaced by R.

» The force R can be resolved into two components Fc and Ft.

» Fc and Ft can be determined by force dynamometers.

 Cont’d…

» The rake angle (α) can be measured from the tool, and forces F and N

can then be determined. The shear angle (Ø) can be obtained from it’s

relation with chip reduction coefficient.

» Now Fs & Fn can also be determined.

 Cont’d…
× The significance of the forces displayed in the Merchant’s Circle Diagram is:

» Ps - The shear force essentially required to produce or separate the chip from the

parent body by shear.

» Pn - Inherently exists along with Ps.

» F - Friction force at the chip tool interface

» N - Force acting normal to the rake surface

× The magnitude of PS provides the yield shear strength of the work material under the

cutting action.

× The values of F and the ratio of F and N indicate the nature and degree of interaction

like friction at the chip tool interface.

× The force components Px, PY, PZ are generally obtained by direct measurement. Again

PZ helps in determining cutting power and specific energy requirement. The force

components are also required to design the cutting tool and the machine tool.
The procedure to construct a merchants circle diagram

× Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the origin in

the centre of the page. The cutting force (Fc) is drawn

horizontally, and the tangential force (Ft) is drawn

vertically. (Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.

× Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that

encloses vector R. If done correctly, the heads and

tails of all 3 vectors will lie on this circle.

× Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand

quadrant, taking care to draw the correct rake angle

(α) from the vertical axis.

× Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool

(at the same rake angle) through the circle. This now

gives the friction force (F).

 Cont’d…

» A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction vector, to the head of

the resultant force (R). This gives the normal force (N).

» Also add a friction angle (β) between vectors R and N. Therefore, mathematically,

R = Fc + Ft = F + N.

» Draw a feed thickness line parallel to the horizontal axis. Next draw a chip

thickness line parallel to the tool cutting face.

» Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the intersection of the two

chip lines, stopping at the circle. The result will be a shear force (Fs). Also

measure the shear force angle between Fs and Fc.

» Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of Fs to the head of

R.
Cont’d…
Relationship of various forces acting on the
chip with the horizontal and vertical cutting
force from Merchant circle diagram
Cont’d…
 Cont’d…

Summary
 Advantages of use of
merchant Circle Diagram
(MCD):
— Easy, quick and reasonably accurate forces from a
few known forces involved in machining
— Friction at chip-tool interface and dynamic yield
shear be easily determined
— Equations relating the different forces can be developed.

Limitations of use of MCD:

— MCD is valid only for orthogonal cutting

— By the ratio, F/N, the MCD gives apparent (not actual)

coefficient of friction
 Cutting Ratio
or chip thickness ratio)
Chip
tool
(f-a)

B
tc
to f
A
Workpiece

to tc
As Sin = and Cos-) =
AB AB
t0 sin
Chip thickness ratio (r) = =
tc cos( )
Shear Plane Length and
Angle
Chip

tool
(f-a)
B
tc
to f
A
Workpiece

t0
Shear plane length AB =
sin
-1 rc os
She ar pl ane angl e () = Tan
1-rsi n
 Theory of Ernst and Merchant (1944)

• Ernest and Merchant gave the relation:

• Assumptions of the theory:

M. Eugene
» Tool edge is sharp. Merchant

» The work material undergoes deformation across a thin shear

plane.

» There is uniform distribution of normal and shear stress on the

shear plane.

» The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.

» The chip width remains constant.

Stresses
On the Shear plane:
Fn Fnsin
Normal Stress = s = Normal Force / Area = =
AB w tow
Fs Fssin
Shear Stress = s = Shear Force / Area = =
AB w tow

On the tool rake face:

N
 = Normal Force / Area = (often assume tc = contact length)
tc w
F
 = Shear Force / Area =
tc w
Po
wer
 Power (or energy consumed per unit time) is the
product of force and velocity. Power at the cutting
spindle:
Cutting Power = Pc = FVc

 Power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone and on

Power for Shearing Ps = FsV s
the rake face:
Friction Power Pf = FVc

Pc
 Actual Motor
Motor Power
Power requirements
Required = x 100will depend on
E
machine efficiency E (%):
terial Removal Rate (MRR)
Volume Removed
Material Removal Rate (MRR) =
Time
Volume Removed = Lwto

Time to move a distance L = L/V

Lwto
Therefore, MRR = = Vwto
L/V

MRR = Cutting velocity x width of cut x depth of cut

Specific Cutting Energy
(or Unit
 Energy required Power)
to remove a unit volume of
material (often quoted as a function of workpiece
material, toolEnergy
and process: Energy per unit time
Ut = =
Volume Removed Volume Removed per unit time

Cutting Power (Pc) FcV Fc

Ut = = =
Material Removal Rate (MRR) Vwto wto

Ut = Us + Uf +Uc +Um
FsV s
Specific Energy for shearing U s =
Vwto

FV c Fr F
Specific Energy for friction U f = = = =
Vwto wto wtc
 Cutting Forces and Power measurement

Measuring Cutting Forces and Power:

» Cutting forces can be measured using a force transducer, a

dynamometer or a load cell mounted on the cutting-tool

holder.

» It is also possible to calculate the cutting force from the

power consumption during cutting (provided mechanical

efficiency of the tool can be determined)

» The specific energy (u) in cutting can be used to calculate

27
 Cutting Forces and Power
Power

 Prediction of forces is
based largely on
experimental data (right)
 Wide ranges of values
is due to differences in
material strengths
 Sharpness of the tool
tip also influences
forces and power
28
 Duller tools require
 Ex1.

• If, in orthogonal turning a tool of and , the force

components, Ft and Fc are measured to be 400 N and

800 N respectively, then what will be the value of the

apparent coefficient (μa) of friction at the chip tool

interface at that condition? Also determine the shear

force & normal force to the shear component. [solve

using equations only]

 Ex. 2.

• During turning a ductile alloy by a tool of rake

angle it was found that Pz = 1000N, Px = 400N,

Py = 300N and r = 2.5. Evaluate, using MCD,

the values of F, N, and μ as well as Ps and Pn for

the above machining. Use scale 1cm = 200N.

 Ex.3
During turning a steel rod of diameter 150 mm by

a carbide tool of geometry with rake angle of . At

speed 560 rpm, feed 0.32 mm/rev, width of cut

0.32mm and depth of cut 4.0 mm, the followings

were observed:

Determine, without using MCD, the expected

values of F, N, , cutting power, specific energy

Ex. 4
• For turning a given steel rod by a tool of given geometry if

shear force Fs, frictional force F and shear angle Ø could be

estimated to be 400N , 300N and respectively, then what would

be the possible values of Ft and Fc? HSS tool with rake angle of

12 deg. is used for machining.

Ex. 5
 Ex.6

• An orthogonal cut is made with a carbide tool having a 15°

positive rake angle. The various parameters were noted,

— the cut width was 0.25mm

—the feed was set at 0.125rev/min

—the chip thickness was measured to be 0.375mm

— the cutting speed was 250 m/min.

—the forces measured were Fc = 375 N and Ft = 125 N

a) Use Merchant's Circle to scale,

b) From the Merchant Circle diagram find the shear angle (Ø),

friction force (F), friction normal force (N), and shear force (Fs).

c) Calculate values for the coefficient of friction (μ) and the metal
Ex. 7

The cutting forces for a lathe are listed below.

Work RPM = 125 , feed = 0.005mm/rev, chip thickness =

0.0123mm, rake angle of tool = 14°, Ft = 150 N, Fc = 245
N and work diameter = 8mm.

a) Find the horsepower consumed in cutting, shearing

and friction.

b) Find a maximum lathe horsepower, assuming the

machine efficiency is 95% and it requires 1/8 idle
horsepower.

c) Based on the cutting horsepower, what material(s)

might we be cutting?
 ? ??
Q ns