Engineering Science
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Chapter 1: Dynamics
SCALARS AND VECTORS
A scalar is a quantity which has only magnitude while a vector is a quantity
which has both magnitude and direction.
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Chapter 1: Dynamics (continued)
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF SCALARS AND VECTORS
A scalar may be represented graphically by drawing a straight line to a
suitable scale. By representing its direction in the form of an arrow head, the
scalar quantity becomes a vector quantity.
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Chapter 1: Dynamics (continued)
VECTOR ADDITION
The addition of vectors working along a straight line, is similar to numerical
and scalar addition.
Coplanar vectors, also known as two-dimensional vectors, act in the same
plane.
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Chapter 1: Dynamics (continued)
BOW’S NOTATION
Bow’s notation can be used to classify the vectors in vector diagrams. The
plane in which the vectors act, may be regarded as divided into spaces by
the lines of action of the forces.
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Chapter 1: Dynamics (continued)
MASS AND WEIGHT
Mass (measured in kilograms) is the amount of matter a body contains while
weight (measured in newtons) is the gravitational force acting on a body.
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Chapter 1: Dynamics (continued)
DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
Distance is the distance covered, regardless of direction and displacement is
the straight line distance that a body moves.
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Chapter 1: Dynamics (continued)
SPEED AND VELOCITY
Speed is the rate of change of distance and velocity is speed in a given
direction or the rate of change of displacement.
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Chapter 1: Dynamics (continued)
ACCELERATION
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
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Chapter 1: Dynamics (continued)
FREE-FALLING BODIES
All free-falling bodies have the same acceleration. This is any object which
has only the gravitational pull working on it.
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Chapter 2: Statics
FORCES
Force is that influence which, when applied to a body, will change or tend to
change its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line. It is measured in
newtons.
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Chapter 2: Statics (continued)
PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES
If two similar forces acting on a point are represented as vectors by two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their resultant will be represented in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from that
point.
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Chapter 2: Statics (continued)
TRIANGLE OF FORCES
If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, they can be represented in
magnitude and direction by the sides of a triangle taken in order.
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Chapter 2: Statics (continued)
LIFTING MACHINES
Lifting machines are mechanical devices designed to make work easier.
These machines make it possible for a load (output force) larger that the
applied effort (input force) to be raised.
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Chapter 2: Statics (continued)
THE LEVER
The lever is probably the simplest of all lifting machines.
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Chapter 2: Statics (continued)
PULLEY BLOCK SYSTEMS
This simple machine does not have a mechanical advantage, since the
velocity ratio of the effort to the load is one. It does, however, have the great
advantage of changing the line of action of the effort.
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Chapter 2: Statics (continued)
WHEEL AND AXLE
The wheel and axle is an adaption of the crank and drum, which has been
one of the most common and simple machines of the past. This winch is
easy to construct and was popular for raising water from wells. It still has
many uses today.
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Chapter 2: Statics (continued)
MOMENTS
The moment of a force is the turning effect of a force about a point. A
spanner tightening a nut is an example of this.
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Chapter 2: Statics (continued)
LEVERS (1 FORCE)
A lever is a rigid bar or other similar structure. When it is used to produce a
turning moment at a point, the turning moment is usually referred to as a
torque.
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Chapter 2: Statics (continued)
LEVERS (2 FORCES)
In a two force lever, the weight of the load is great compared to the applied
effort but the distance between the set in the fulcrum and load, is small
compared to the distance from the fulcrum to the effort.
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Chapter 2: Statics (continued)
BEAMS
When a horizontal beam, resting on supports, is in equilibrium when acted
upon by vertical forces, then;
• Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments about the
same point, and;
• Sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces.
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Chapter 3: Energy, work and power
ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy is measured in joules.
Energy occurs in many forms such as thermal (or heat), chemical, electrical,
potential, kinetic, magnetic and atomic energy.
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Chapter 3: Energy, work and power (continued)
POTENTIAL ENERGY (PE)
Potential energy is the energy a body possesses by virtue of its “position” or
“state of strain”.
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Chapter 3: Energy, work and power (continued)
KINETIC ENERGY (KE)
Kinetic energy is the energy that a body possesses by virtue of its motion.
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Chapter 3: Energy, work and power (continued)
HEAT ENERGY
Heat is associated with the kinetic energy of molecules. Heat can be used to
convert water into steam. The heat energy stored in the steam can then be
used to drive steam engines or steam turbines.
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Chapter 3: Energy, work and power (continued)
CHEMICAL ENERGY
When fuels such as wood, coal and gas burn, chemical reactions take place
and heat energy is released. In a petrol engine, the chemical energy in the
petrol is converted into heat and mechanical energy.
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Chapter 3: Energy, work and power (continued)
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Electrical energy is probably the most useful form of energy and is
associated with the forces between electrical charges. It is readily obtainable,
economical, efficient and easy to control.
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Chapter 3: Energy, work and power (continued)
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The law of the conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created
or destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to another.
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Chapter 3: Energy, work and power (continued)
ENERGY CONVERSION
Energy can be converted from one form to another. For example, potential
energy can be converted into kinetic energy when movement is gained.
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Chapter 3: Energy, work and power (continued)
WORK
Work is the measure of change of energy state. It is measured in joules.
Work is done regardless of whether the force moves in a straight line or
rotates about a point.
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹xs
Where W = work,
F = Effective force, and
s = distance.
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Chapter 3: Energy, work and power (continued)
POWER
Power is the rate of doing work.
𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑡𝑡
Where P = power,
W = work, and
t = time.
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Chapter 4: Heat
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
Heat is a form of energy and temperature is an indication of the degree of
hotness or coldness of a body.
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Chapter 4: Heat (continued)
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
There are various instruments used for measuring temperatures. Instruments
used for measuring relatively low temperatures are referred to as
thermometers and those used for measuring high temperatures are known
as pyrometers.
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Chapter 4: Heat (continued)
THERMOMETERS
• Coloured alcohol thermometers; and
• Mercury thermometers.
An increase in temperature will cause the liquid to expand and move further
up the bore. This can then easily be read against the scale.
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Chapter 4: Heat (continued)
HEAT TRANSFERS
Heat can be transferred in three ways:
• Conduction;
• Convection; and
• Radiation.
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Chapter 4: Heat (continued)
EFFECTS OF HEAT
When heat is added to or removed from a substance, changes take place.
Some of the common effects are:
• Temperature changes;
• Colour changes;
• Volume changes;
• Change of phase; and
• Change of resistance.
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Chapter 4: Heat (continued)
THERMOCOUPLE
A typical thermocouple can be used:
• For measuring temperatures in furnaces;
• To be permanently inserted (wound) inside the windings of large electric
motors; and
• To be permanently placed in hard to reach places of machines.
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Chapter 4: Heat (continued)
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of a substance 1 °C (or 1 K).
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Chapter 4: Heat (continued)
HEAT TRANSFER (SUBSTANCES IN CONTACT)
When a hot substance is mixed or brought into contact with a cooler one,
heat is transferred from the hotter substance to the cooler one until their
temperatures are equal.
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Chapter 4: Heat (continued)
THERMAL EXPANSION
The volume of most substances increases when their temperature is
increased. In engineering, the increase in volume of a liquid or gas is of most
importance. In the case of solids, the increase in area and length is of most
importance. When a substance is cooled, the reverse takes place.
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Chapter 5: Composition of matter
MATTER
Familiar examples of matter are water, air, copper, tin, smoke, iron and salt.
All matter is made up of extremely small particles called molecules.
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Chapter 5: Composition of matter (continued)
COMPOUND SUBSTANCES
Hundreds of thousands of different compound substances are made by
combining two or more different elements. Water, for example, is made from
two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen.
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Chapter 5: Composition of matter (continued)
ELEMENTS
An element is a substance that contains only one kind of atom.
Examples of these are the familiar elements aluminium, carbon, chlorine,
copper, gold, hydrogen, iron, lead, mercury, oxygen, silver, sodium and tin.
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Chapter 5: Composition of matter (continued)
ATOMS
An atom is the smallest part of an element that has all the characteristics of
that element. Atoms are made up of electrons, neutrons and protons.
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Chapter 5: Composition of matter (continued)
IONS
When an atom gains or loses one or more electrons, it is said to be ionised.
The atom then has a net negative or net positive charge and is referred to as
an ion.
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Chapter 5: Composition of matter (continued)
PHASES OF MATTER
Matter exists in three phases (states):
• Solid;
• Liquid; and
• Gaseous (gas or vapour).
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Chapter 6: Electricity
CONDUCTORS AND CURRENT FLOW
A conductor is a substance through which an electrical current can flow
easily. Electric current is the movement of electric charges in a specific
direction through a material.
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Chapter 6: Electricity (continued)
CONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Some materials are better conductors than others. When referring to
conducting materials, metals are generally thought of first, but non metals
such as carbon and various gases and liquids, can also act as conductors.
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Chapter 6: Electricity (continued)
INSULATORS
An insulator is any substance which prevents the flow of electric current.
Examples of insulating materials are:
• PVC;
• Glazed porcelain; and
• Mica.
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Chapter 6: Electricity (continued)
RESISTANCE
Resistance is the opposition offered to the flow of electrical current.
A device or wire designed specifically to oppose the flow of current in a
circuit is known as a resistor.
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Chapter 6: Electricity (continued)
THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
For a simple, practical circuit, the following is required:
• An electrical power device, e.g. a cell or a battery;
• An electric appliance or device (load), e.g. an electric lamp, bell or radio,
which can be operated from the power device; and
• Two lengths of insulated conductor connecting the device to the power
supply in order to allow current (electrons) to flow.
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Chapter 6: Electricity (continued)
OHM’S LAW
According to Ohm’s law, the current flowing in a circuit is proportional to the
applied voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit.
𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅
Where I = current;
V = Potential difference; and
R = Resistance.
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Chapter 6: Electricity (continued)
HEATING EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT
When the flow of electric current is restricted, heat energy is generated.
Since there is no perfect conductor, heat energy will be generated in all parts
of a circuit where current is flowing.
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Chapter 6: Electricity (continued)
POWER IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
When work is done, energy is expended. Consider a circuit in which a certain
potential difference is applied across a resistor: This will result in a current
flow. In order to get the current to flow, work must be done to keep the
electrons moving.
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Chapter 6: Electricity (continued)
GROUPING OF RESISTORS
• Resistors in series: • Resistors in parallel:
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Chapter 6: Electricity (continued)
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR
The resistance of a conductor depends on four factors, namely:
• The type of material from which the conductor is made.
• The length of the conductor in metres (m).
• The cross-sectional area of the conductor in 𝑚𝑚2 .
• The temperature of the conductor.
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Chapter 6: Electricity (continued)
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE (𝜶𝜶)
The resistance of most materials are affected by changes in temperature.
Temperature coefficient of resistance is the increase in unit resistance of a
substance, per unit rise in temperature from 0°C.
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Chapter 6: Electricity (continued)
ELECTROMAGNETISM
The magnetic field or entire quantity of magnetic lines surrounding a magnet,
taken as a whole, is called magnetic flux or magnetic field.
One of the phenomena of an electric current is its ability to produce a
magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor.
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