I.

Introduction
I.1. Motivation
Environmental pollution has become an issue not only for a single country or
region but also a global concern for all of humanity. The economic and social
development processes of nations worldwide have caused severe impacts on
the environment. These impacts have led to environmental degradation and
significant changes in human living conditions. Notable consequences include
climate change, global warming, ozone layer depletion, acid rain, and
particularly air pollution caused by transportation activities.

Figure 1.1. The number of vehicles is increasing rapidly in Hanoi, Vietnam.

In Vietnam, air pollution in major urban areas has become an urgent issue. This
pollution originates from various sources, among which the increasing number of
vehicles in large cities, as shown in Figure 1.1. is considered one of the primary
causes. This is because the level of air pollution is directly proportional to the
number of vehicles on the road. According to data from the Vietnam Register, as
of September 2022, there were 4,937,988 automobiles nationwide, doubling the
number recorded in December 2016 (which stood at 2,516,144 vehicles). [1]

Figure 1.2. Environmental pollution caused by substandard means of transport

Moreover, the technical condition of vehicles is also a critical issue. Figure 1.2.
illustrates that most old automobiles and motorcycles, after prolonged operation,
exhibit high emission levels. This is largely due to the fact that many road users
in Vietnam have yet to develop the habit of performing periodic vehicle
maintenance as recommended by manufacturers. Consequently, poor
maintenance leads to inefficient combustion, increased fuel consumption, and a
corresponding rise in pollutant emissions into the environment. Facing the severe
environmental pollution caused by transportation activities, which negatively
impacts human health and daily life, numerous measures have been implemented.
One of the effective solutions for vehicles running on gasoline or diesel fuel is
the adoption of alternative fuels such as biofuel (bioethanol, biodiesel),
compressed natural gas (CNG), and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). The
advantages of biofuels in terms of emissions compared to fossil fuels are
undeniable. However, several limitations must still be considered, such as the fact
that the production process of biofuels also emits CO₂; deforestation to create
farmland for biofuel crops reduces natural forest areas; and refining biofuels into
more efficient energy sources requires the establishment of necessary production
facilities, demanding high initial investments, which currently make biofuel costs
relatively high.
In addition, electric and hydrogen-powered vehicles represent a highly promising
direction for mitigating environmental pollution. In recent years, research in this
field has gained significant attention worldwide, contributing to the continuous
technical advancement of alternative fuel vehicles, including electric and
hydrogen-powered vehicles. Moreover, investments in upgrading and improving
transportation infrastructure are being prioritized, and it is expected that the
demand for these vehicle types will continue to grow significantly in the future.
So, utilizing electric or hydrogen energy in transportation requires one of two
solutions: either completely replacing the internal combustion engine - ICE
(Battery electric vehicles - BEVs or Fuel cell vehicles - FCVs) or integrating
ICE with electric motors (Hybrid electric vehicles - HEVs).
I.2. Alternative power sources to ICE
I.2.1. Electric motor
 Figure 1.3. Power and torque characteristics curve of electric motor
Based on the characteristic curve shown in Figure 1.3, it can be observed that the
electric motor’s performance closely aligns with the ideal traction characteristics
of an automobile. Typically, an electric motor starts from 0. As it reaches its base
speed, the voltage increases while the current remains constant. When operating
above the base speed, the voltage remains constant while the current decreases.
This results in constant power output, while the torque follows a hyperbolic
decrease as speed increases.
As a consequence, the drivetrain from the motor to the drive axle only requires a
single-speed or two-speed transmission to meet the required traction force,
whereas an ICE requires a multi-speed gearbox. This is a key advantage of
electric motors compared to ICEs when applied in transportation vehicles.
I.2.2. Compressed-air engine (high pressured)

Figure 1.4. Model of a high-pressure compressed-air engine

With the goal of achieving zero emissions, researchers have proposed the use of a
high-pressure compressed air engine as a replacement for the internal combustion
engine (ICE). This approach utilizes high-pressure air injected into the cylinder,
where it expands to generate work. Consequently, compressed air must be stored
in a high-pressure tank at up to 300 bars with a sufficiently large volume to
ensure an adequate supply for the engine to operate over the required duration.
Figure 1.4. illustrates the model of a high-pressure compressed-air engine.
However, high-pressure air storage still presents several challenges that require
further research and development. As a result, this solution remains in the
research phase but holds significant potential for future applications
I.2.3. Hybrid powertrain

Figure 1.5. Schematics of HEV

A 'gasoline-electric hybrid vehicle' is an automobile which relies not only on
gasoline but also on electric power sources. In HEV, the battery alone provides
power for low-speed driving conditions. During long highways or hill climbing,
the gasoline engine drives the vehicle solely. Hybrid electric vehicles comprise of
an electric motor, inverter, battery as electric drive and an internal combustion
engine with transmission connected as gasoline-based drive. It is to achieve
better fuel economy and reduce toxic emissions.
HEVs have been vehicles of numerous advantages. Hybrids do indeed get
superior gas mileage. They use less gasoline and therefore emit less greenhouse
gases. Thus, the problem of environmental pollution can be avoided to a certain
extent. Apart from that they use less gasoline in comparison to the other vehicles
of the same power that run only on gasoline. Thus, this reduces the extreme
dependence on gasoline, which is a non-renewable source of energy. This
encourages the method of sustainable development that has been the topic of
concern in modern society. Moreover, HEVs mode of operation are maximum
efficient to the conditions, at low speed and high traffic areas where gasoline
engine is least efficient with a lot of energy wasted, HEV moves with power from
battery. At up slopes where high power is required and battery is inefficient,
gasoline power is used for vehicle motion.
 CONCLUSION, in the current context, hybrid vehicles, which combine an
ICE and an electric motor, are considered the most suitable solution in the
transitional phase toward the development of “clean” automobiles. This
approach aims to meet the strict environmental requirements of urban areas
while addressing the risk of fossil fuel depletion. So, research on hybrid
vehicles needs to be given greater attention and further promoted.
I.3. Classification of hybrid vehicle powertrain combinations
There are three basic hybrid powertrain diagrams:
(1) Series Hybrid Vehicle – In this configuration, the ICE combined with a
generator, supplies energy to charge the battery and provide electrical power to
the electric motor (EM). The EM delivers torque directly to the wheels.
(2) Parallel Hybrid Vehicle – This type of hybrid system allows the vehicle to be
driven by either the ICE, the EM, or both. The EM also functions as a generator
to recharge the battery during regenerative braking system (RBS) or when the
ICE produces more energy than required for propulsion.
(3) Series-Parallel Hybrid Vehicle – This configuration combines the advantages
of both series and parallel hybrid systems, allowing the vehicle to be powered by
the ICE, the EM, or both. Although this hybrid system offers superior
performance benefits, it is relatively more complex and costly. However,
advancements in control technology and manufacturing processes have enabled
its application in several modern hybrid vehicles.
I.3.1. Series Hybrid Vehicle

Figure 1.7. Serial Hybrid Vehicle structure diagram

The series hybrid vehicle, as illustrated in Figure 1.7, shows that the EM serves
as the primary power source driving the wheels, while the ICE functions solely to
drive a generator, which supplies energy to the EM and charges the battery.
With the series hybrid configuration, the ICE can always operate within its
optimal load and speed range, thereby improving its thermal efficiency.
Additionally, since the torque delivered to the wheels is generated by the EM,
vehicle speed control becomes relatively simple. Furthermore, the power flow
structure is straightforward (linear), eliminating the need for a transmission
system, which simplifies the overall vehicle design.
However, a series hybrid system requires a high-power EM to meet the vehicle’s
power demands, leading to a larger EM size. More importantly, the battery must
be significantly larger in both size and capacity to supply sufficient energy for
vehicle operation. Moreover, due to multiple energy conversion stages, the first
from the chemical energy of fuel to mechanical energy in the ICE, then to
electrical energy in the generator, followed by storage in the battery, and finally
back to mechanical energy in the EM, so the overall system efficiency may be
reduced.
I.3.2. Parallel Hybrid Vehicle

Figure 1.8. Parallel Hybrid Vehicle structure diagram

The structural diagram of a parallel hybrid vehicle, as illustrated in Figure 1.8,
demonstrates that in this configuration, both the ICE and the EM can
independently drive the wheels or work together to provide propulsion. As a
result, the parallel hybrid system does not require a large EM and eliminates the
need for multiple energy conversion stages between the ICE and the wheels,
leading to potentially higher overall system efficiency compared to the series
hybrid configuration.
Additionally, in a parallel hybrid system, the rated power of the EM can be
significantly lower than that of the ICE, as the torque-speed characteristics of the
EM are superior to those of the ICE. Furthermore, the drivetrain connecting the
power sources to the drive axle may only require a single-speed transmission,
making the system simpler. With this configuration, parallel hybrid vehicles can
achieve better hill-climbing capability, improved acceleration, enhanced fuel
economy, and higher overall efficiency.
However, the control strategy for a parallel hybrid drivetrain is much more
complex than that of a series hybrid system, as the power distribution between
the ICE, EM, and drive axle requires sophisticated coordination. Moreover, the
mechanical coupling between the ICE and the driven wheels prevents the ICE
from operating within a narrow optimal speed range at all times.
I.3.3. Series - Parallel Hybrid Vehicle

Figure 1.9. Series - Parallel Hybrid Vehicle structure diagram

In a series-parallel hybrid vehicle, the electric motor (EM), generator, internal
combustion engine (ICE), and wheels are interconnected through one or more
planetary gear sets or other mechanical devices. Figure 1.9 illustrates the
schematic of a series-parallel hybrid system, where the power generated by the
ICE and EM is distributed and transmitted to the wheels via two pathways: series
and parallel.
In the series pathway, energy flows from the ICE to the generator, converting
mechanical energy into electrical energy. This electrical energy is then managed
by the energy storage system (ESS), where part of it is used to charge the battery
while the rest is sent to the EM to drive the wheels, or alternatively, the entire
energy output may be used to power the EM directly.
In the parallel pathway, the ICE is mechanically connected to the drivetrain
through a gear system. In this case, a portion or all the mechanical energy from
the ICE is directly transmitted to the wheels, while any excess energy not used
for propulsion is converted into electrical energy via the generator to charge the
battery. If the power demand exceeds the ICE’s capacity, the EM drivetrain
supplies the torque required to drive the wheels.
A series-parallel hybrid vehicle operates continuously as a combination of both
series and parallel systems. This setup enables the electric propulsion system to
regulate engine load efficiently, optimizing fuel economy. As a result, a series-
parallel hybrid vehicle leverages the advantages of a series hybrid for city driving
(better efficiency in stop-and-go conditions) while benefiting from the parallel
hybrid system on highways (direct mechanical power transmission for improved
efficiency). This allows series-parallel hybrid vehicles to achieve higher overall
performance and efficiency compared to pure series or parallel hybrid systems,
which are only optimized for specific driving conditions.
1.4. Design requirements
1.4.1. Main components
In contrast to conventional vehicles, hybrid vehicles are equipped with a battery,
an electric motor, a propulsion motor, and various power electronic modules,
including a DC-DC converter and a DC-AC inverter.
a. Internal combustion engine
In the hybrid powertrain, the internal combustion engine (ICE) acts as the
main energy source, providing power for the entire system. Hybrid vehicle
engines usually feature a higher compression ratio than traditional engines,
leading to improved efficiency and higher specific power output.
b. Electric motor
The electric motor plays a vital role in hybrid vehicle technology. Depending
on the hybrid vehicle's design, it may function as a peak power controller, a load-
sharing component, or a low-torque source. To ensure optimal performance, the
electric motor must operate efficiently in both standard and extended modes.
Under normal conditions, the motor delivers consistent torque within its rated
speed range. Once it exceeds this range, it transitions to traction mode, where
torque gradually decreases as speed increases. In hybrid vehicles, the electric
motor initially provides the necessary torque for full acceleration before shifting
to an extended mode to maintain a steady driving speed. Additionally, the electric
motor is responsible for recovering energy during braking.
As a fundamental part of hybrid vehicles, the electric motor often utilizes
brushless DC motors (BLDC) or AC induction motors, favored for their high
efficiency, affordability, low maintenance, and extended lifespan. While AC
induction motors typically require an AC power source, which seems
incompatible with the DC power supply of hybrid vehicles, advancements in
modern power electronics enable efficient DC-to-AC conversion.
Since the DC voltage varies based on the battery’s state of charge (SOC) and
operating conditions, BLDC motors or AC induction motors must work alongside
DC-DC converters or DC-AC inverters to regulate the voltage to suitable
operating levels. To maximize performance in hybrid vehicles, the efficiency of
these converters and inverters generally needs to exceed 95%.
In hybrid vehicle system design, it is essential to understand the torque/power
characteristic curves in relation to the speed contour, as illustrated in figure:

Figure 1.10. Typical Torque/Power vs. Speed Curve of a BLDC Motor System
c. Battery
The battery is a key component in hybrid vehicles, significantly affecting
overall efficiency. Hybrid vehicle batteries are characterized by high energy
density, limited internal durability, long charge-discharge cycles, and a relatively
short lifespan. The choice of battery depends on the vehicle's design goals, with
high-energy-density batteries being commonly used in traditional hybrids and
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).
Additionally, capacitors serve as another energy storage solution, offering
unlimited longevity and ultrafast charging and discharging capabilities. These
attributes make them particularly well-suited for delivering quick bursts of
energy required for vehicle acceleration and for efficient energy recovery during
regenerative braking.
d. Powertrain system
A hybrid vehicle must effectively manage both the internal combustion
engine (ICE) and the electric motor (EM), as well as their seamless integration.
The powertrain system plays a key role in enabling start-stop functionality,
regenerative braking, and engine operating range transitions. Consequently, the
transmission must be capable of adjusting its parameters to accommodate real-
time driving strategies.
The powertrain system is responsible for:
– Enabling the vehicle to transition from a standstill to motion
– Adjusting torque and rotational speed from the engine to meet varying
traction demands, ensuring smooth forward and reverse movement
– Optimizing fuel efficiency and reducing emissions while maintaining
driving performance.
Since hybrid vehicles combine multiple power sources with distinct
characteristics, their transmission systems are more complex and essential
compared to those in conventional vehicles. To ensure maximum efficiency and
peak performance, a specially engineered transmission system is required for
each hybrid configuration. Among the commonly used transmission types in
hybrid vehicles are electronically variable transmissions (EVT) and power-split
transmissions (PST), both of which enhance power distribution and efficiency.
1.4.2. Efficiency and fuel consumption
 More fuel-efficient than conventional vehicles with standard typically
ranges from 3 to 5 liters per 100 km.
 Hybrid vehicles should include EV Mode (EM - only), Hybrid mode
(combination of EM and ICE), and engine mode (ICE - only) to optimize
fuel efficiency.
 Integrating a regenerative braking system to recover energy during
deceleration.
1.4.3. Battery and charging capability
 Battery type: Primarily Lithium-ion (Li-ion) or Nickel-metal hydride (Ni-
MH).
 Battery capacity from 1.0 kWh to 18 kWh, depending on the hybrid type
(HEV, PHEV).
 Charging capability: Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) require
support for AC charging or DC fast charging.
1.5. Hybrid vehicle models on the market
Hybrid car technology started gaining popularity in the late 1990s. The
first mass-produced hybrid vehicle was the Toyota Prius, which was launched in
Japan in 1997, followed by the Honda Insight, introduced in 1999 in both the
United States and Japan. The Prius later expanded to Europe, North America, and
other global markets in 2000. Since then, hybrid vehicle technology has
continuously evolved, leading to the introduction of numerous new hybrid
models with increasingly advanced features and improved efficiency.
 Figure 1.10. The first hybrid vehicle - Toyota Prius
The Mercedes-Benz S400 BlueHybrid was introduced at the 2009
Chicago Auto Show, with sales beginning in the U.S. in October 2009. As a mild
hybrid, it became the first hybrid vehicle to use a lithium-ion battery. The hybrid
technology in the S400 was co-developed by Daimler AG and BMW. A similar
system was later implemented in the BMW Active Hybrid 7, which was launched
in the U.S. and Europe in mid-2010. Additionally, in December 2009, BMW
introduced the BMW Active Hybrid X6, a full-hybrid SUV.
In 2011, the Toyota Auris Hybrid became the first mass-produced hybrid
electric vehicle in Europe. That same year, Lincoln unveiled the 2011 MKZ
Hybrid at the 2010 New York International Auto Show, with U.S. sales beginning
in September 2010. Notably, the MKZ Hybrid was the first hybrid model to be
priced the same as its gasoline-powered counterpart. Another major hybrid debut
was the Porsche Cayenne Hybrid, which was introduced in the U.S. in late 2010.
At the 2010 Geneva Motor Show, Volkswagen announced the 2012
Touareg Hybrid, which later entered the U.S. market in 2011. VW also revealed
plans to launch diesel-electric hybrid versions of its most popular models,
starting with the Jetta in 2012, followed by the Golf Hybrid in 2013, along with
hybrid variants of the Passat. Several other gasoline-electric hybrids were
released in the U.S. in 2011, including the Lexus CT 200h, Infiniti M35 Hybrid,
Hyundai Sonata Hybrid, and Kia Optima Hybrid.
The Toyota Prius C launched in Japan under the name Toyota Aqua in
December 2011 before being released in the U.S. in March 2012. Around the
same time, Toyota introduced the Prius V in the U.S. in October 2011, marking
the first spinoff model from the Prius lineup.
Additional hybrid models released in the U.S. in 2012 included the Audi
Q5 Hybrid, BMW 5 Series ActiveHybrid, BMW 3 Series Hybrid, Ford C-Max
Hybrid, and Acura ILX Hybrid. That same year, next-generation versions of the
Toyota Camry Hybrid and Ford Fusion Hybrid were introduced, offering
significantly improved fuel efficiency over previous models. In December 2012,
the 2013 Toyota Avalon Hybrid and Volkswagen Jetta Hybrid were also launched
in the U.S.
By December 2013, Honda began sales of the Honda Vezel Hybrid SUV
in Japan. At the 2013 Frankfurt Auto Show, Land Rover introduced the Range
Rover Hybrid, with retail deliveries in Europe expected in early 2014.
Meanwhile, Ford, the world's second-largest hybrid car manufacturer after
Toyota, surpassed 400,000 hybrid vehicles produced in November 2014.Eighteen
years after the introduction of hybrid vehicles, Japan became the first country to
sell over 1 million hybrid cars in a single year, surpassing the United States to
become the largest hybrid market in the world.
In December 2015, the redesigned, more efficient fourth-generation
Toyota Prius was launched in Japan. The 2016 Prius Eco set a new benchmark
for fuel efficiency, surpassing the 2000 Honda Insight as the most fuel-efficient
gasoline-powered vehicle ever rated by the U.S. EPA.By the end of 2017,
Chevrolet introduced the Chevy ZH2, a hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle designed
specifically for the U.S. market.
In Vietnam, around 2009, Vietnam saw its first hybrid cars imported by
private dealers, though in limited quantities and mostly luxury models. Some of
the most notable hybrids at the time included the Lexus RX400h and LS600hL,
which were particularly popular among wealthy buyers. By 2010, the officially
distributed Mercedes-Benz S400 Hybrid entered the Vietnamese market.
However, hybrid vehicles only gained mainstream acceptance in recent years, as
more affordable hybrid models emerged, such as the Toyota Corolla Cross
1.8HV, Nissan X-Trail Hybrid, and Toyota Prius Hybrid, Toyota Camry HEV,
Honda Civic eHEV 2025. However, with increasingly stringent emission
regulations, hybrid vehicles are expected to capture a larger market share in
Vietnam's automotive industry in the near future.

Figure 1.11. Honda CIVIC eHEV 2025 model

1.6. Approach to the study
The increasing implementation of power-split hybrid systems in
automotive applications is driven by their ability to merge the benefits of both
series and parallel hybrid architectures, making them well-suited for use in both
city traffic and highway driving conditions. Nonetheless, a significant
engineering challenge associated with power-split hybrids is the design and
control of the power-split mechanism, as well as the optimization of power
distribution between the internal combustion engine (ICE) and the electric
propulsion system. Addressing these technical aspects forms the foundation of
this research.
The research methodology follows a step-by-step approach, commencing
with simulation-based analysis and later validated through experimental testing.
Initially, key vehicle performance parameters such as speed, power demand, and
operational efficiency are determined and integrated into the simulation
framework. The obtained results will then be analyzed to evaluate energy
efficiency, power output, fuel economy, and emission levels.
To ensure the model's accuracy, the simulated results will be cross-
validated with real-world experimental data. Critical performance parameters
such as vehicle speed, powertrain output, emission levels, and fuel consumption
rates will be recorded through empirical testing and compared against the
simulation results. This validation process will determine the reliability of the
proposed hybrid vehicle model and the accuracy of the computational approach
outlined in this study.
1.7. Conclusion:
From the findings discussed earlier, the following key conclusions can be
summarized:
– Hybrid vehicles offer superior environmental benefits compared to
traditional ICE vehicles, as they enhance energy efficiency and
significantly reduce emissions, contributing to lower environmental
impact.
– Given the increasing depletion of fossil fuel reserves and the enforcement
of strict emission control regulations on conventional vehicles, researchers
have explored various solutions to mitigate transportation-related
emissions. Among these solutions, alternative propulsion systems,
particularly hybrid powertrains, have emerged as the most viable and
effective approach. Hybrid vehicle technology has seen substantial
advancements, with numerous hybrid models now mass-produced and
achieving strong sales performance in highly regulated markets such as
Europe, as well as in regions traditionally dominated by gasoline and
diesel-powered vehicles, including Asia.
– This research is centered on the design and computational modeling of a
4-seater hybrid vehicle, with a specific focus on optimizing the power
distribution system between the ICE and the electric motor. Furthermore,
it presents an optimized operational strategy for hybrid powertrains and
validates theoretical design through controlled laboratory experiments.
– The integration of simulation-based tools in hybrid vehicle research and
development offers significant advantages in terms of reducing both
development time and production costs. Therefore, establishing a robust
theoretical framework for hybrid vehicle modeling and simulation is
essential. A detailed discussion of this topic will be provided in Chapter 2.