Minerals:

Mineral resources –
distribution,
methods of extraction used in this primary industry (in brief)
uses of coal,
natural gas,
petroleum,
limestone,
rock salt and
chromites
Other metallic and non-metallic mineral resources of Pakistan (in brief).

Should be able to
 Identify the main locations of the main minerals listed on a map.
 Differentiate and identify metallic and nonmetallic minerals.
 Identify which minerals are resources for power production.
 Describe how these minerals are extracted by the different mining Methods
for example edit, opencast, quarrying, drilling, shaft mining etc
 Relate which mining method is used for which minerals.
 State main uses of the listed mineral and their economic value.
 Describe the environmental problems caused by the five extraction
methods

For every mineral

 Main locations
 Reserves
 Uses
 Economic value (used locally or exported)
 Requirements fulfilled domestically or imported

1
Definitions
1: minerals
It is a natural solid, generally formed by in organic or non- biological
processes, with an ordered internal structure and the specific chemical
composition.

2: mining
It is the extraction and preparation of minerals for industrial use.

3: opencast mining
A method in the extraction which involves extensive excavation
to remove the overlying material covering the mineral deposits, mostly use for
iron and coal

4: quarrying
Removal of rocks for commercial purposes from large and open
surface workings

5: renewable natural resources

Substances that can be replaced in nature after they
are used or exploited by the people example water, forest, fish

6: nonrenewable natural resources

Are those which are formed so slowly in nature that they are regarded to be
present in fixed amount in earth. Once they are used, these cannot be replaced
for example for fossil fuels, large variety of metallic and nonmetallic minerals
such as iron marble ore etc

7: natural resources
A substance which is formed naturally and is known to be
useful to people

2
8: infrastructure
It is the name given to the road, rail and air links slight hitch and
telephone system and other basic utilities which provide a network that benefits
business and community.

9: resources
Defined as features which are needed and used by people. Natural
resources involve raw materials, climate and soils.

10: reserves
Known resources, which are considered exploitable under current
economic and technological conditions

Fossil Fuels
Carbon-based fuels formed in the ground over very long periods, including coal,
oil and natural gas.

A quarry
is a type of open-pit mine from which rock or minerals are extracted. Quarries
are generally used for extracting building materials, such as dimension stone.
Quarries are usually shallower than other types of open-pit mines.

3
 Natural
resources

Renewable if
Carefully Non-renewable
managed

Flow Non-recyclable

Continuous Recyclable

Wind power, Metallic

tide, waves minerals

For example Fossil fuels,

forest, solar coal, natural
energy gas, crude oil

4
 Types of minerals

Nonmetallic
Fossil fuels Metallic minerals
minerals

Coal
Crude oil
Natural gas

Importance of minerals
basic necessities are made by minerals for example machines, tools, pots,
construction of houses

advanced technology especially fast means of communication and

transportation which turned the world into a global village, for example
airplanes, cars, rail, telephone cables etc

backbone of manufacturing industries, provide raw materials for products

can be exported to earn foreign-exchange

importance of extractive industries
provide jobs
create a national wealth
utilization of local resources
mining (extraction of minerals)
condition for mining
 the ore must be in large quantity and in high concentration
 must be located in accessible places
 must be located in places where infrastructure facilities are available for
example transportation etc
 there must be a market demand to get a good price and to earn profit
 there should be a good supply of water for processing

5
reasons for the under development of minerals
sector
 inadequate geological knowledge  lack of finance
and know-how
 lack of adequate research and  lack of adequate equipment and
development facilities infrastructure
 shortage of trained and experienced
manpower  low priority given to mineral
 inaccessible mineral deposits extraction

6
Reasons for underdevelopment can also be
divided into

Physical
Human factors
factors

Relief features Transportation

Market
location
Availability of
water
Market value

Climatic
conditions
Labour

Mineral quality
Government
policy

Mineral
quantity Demand

Infrastructure

Storage
capacity

Location and
site

7
Mining methods
1:Opencast/strip-mining(the main difference between the strip and open
mining is that waste material is mined to uncover the whole scene, instead of
taking to the remote dumping area’s is replaced in the cavity created by recent
mining)

2: quarrying

3: shaft mining

4: drilling

5: Adit mining

Steps in the mining process

1. Prospecting to locate ore
2. Exploration to defining the extent and value of ore where it was located
("ore body")
3. Estimation Conduct resource estimate to mathematically estimate the
extent and grade of the deposit
4. Planning Conduct mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable
portion of the deposit
5. Conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the total project and make a
decision as whether to develop or walk away from a proposed mine project.
This includes a cradle to grave analysis of the possible mine, from the
initial excavation all the way through to reclamation.
6. Development to create access to an ore body
7. Exploitation to extract ore on a large scale
8. Reclamation to make land where a mine had been suitable for future use

8
9
Open cast

Oil rig (drilling) Oil rig (drilling)

10
Environmental hazards/disadvantages

cause land disturbance

resettling of residents

dust emission

acid mine drainage and pollution out rivers and streams

heap of wasted materials

a destruction of wildlife habitats

landscape scars

pollution of land, air and water

land subsidence (if land is near the ocean the subsidence can
cause frequent flooding)

this can be carried into rivers, and it is solid waste it can cause
flooding by blocking channels

If waste contain Poisonous substances, can kill fish and plants,

can also contaminate underground water reserves its seep
through rain.

11
Why the conservation of minerals is necessary.
Minerals are important for every country for its development and they need to be conserved
because:
 Industry and agriculture depend upon minerals and the substances manufactured
from them.
 Workable minerals are in insufficient quantities.
 Rapid consumption of mineral resources that require millions of years to be renewed.
 The natural rate of replenishment is very small in comparison to the present rates of
consumption.
 Mineral resources are finite and non-renewable.
 Mineral deposits will get exhausted in the future.
 Due to decrease in good quality minerals are now extracted from great depths and the
costs of mineral extraction is increasing.

How minerals can be conserved for the future generations.

Mineral conservation can be done by:
Use our mineral resources in a planned and sustainable manner.
Improve technology to allow use of low grade ores at low costs.
Recycle metals.
Use scrap metals and other substitute

12
 Minerals Assignment
Q: 1

(i) Name one non-metallic mineral which is mined in Pakistan apart from limestone and
Salt. (1)

(ii) Explain how does the production of non-metallic minerals in Pakistan help its
economy? (4)

(b) (i) Describe how the mining and extraction of minerals has influenced the environment
and the lives of people? (4)

(ii) Explain the reasons for the under development of mining sector. (4)

a b c

c: i. Identify the type of mining methods a, b, c. [3]

(i) Chose any two of the methods that you have selected in c (i) and for each method
describe how the mining is carried out? [6]

(ii) Explain what government has done to develop the mining sector. [4]

Q: 2

(a) Study Fig. 3, which shows limestone and rock salt extraction.

13
 Describe the distribution of limestone extraction in Pakistan. [3]

(b) (i) Limestone and rock salt are both called ‘bulky goods’. What is the cheapest form of
transport for these goods? [1]

(ii) Why is the supply of limestone to most areas likely to be cheaper than rock salt? [1]

(c) Nearly one million tonnes of rock salt were extracted in Pakistan during 2002.

(i) What is a mixture of rock salt and water called? [1]

(ii) What is rock salt used for in Pakistan? [2]

(d) Evaluate the benefits and problems of further developing the mineral extraction industry
in Pakistan. Give reasons to support your judgement and refer to examples you have studied.
You should consider different points of view in your answer.

14
JUST FOR INFORMATION

Khewra Salt Mines - Adding Taste to the Palette

Entrance to Khewra Salt Mine (Left) - Railway Line Inside the Mines

The area between Tilla Jogian - Bakrala Hills near River Jhelum to Suleiman mountains is the
area of Slat Range. The range sits at an altitude of no more than 600 - 700 metres, except on
point near Khushab, where its rises to about 1500 meters at Skesar and one is fascinated to
find snow amidst some of the driest and hottest plains and low hills in Pakistan. In these barren

15
and desolate mountain ranges lie the Khewra Salt Mines, one of the biggest salt mines in the
world. Although, these mines are said to have been discovered as early as 327 BC when
Alexander of Macedonia invaded this part of the world... The locals have been extracting salt
from these mines from the out-crops of the salt seams exposed to the surface of the hill, but
these actually came to world fame in 1872, when Dr. Warth, a renowned British mining
engineer, built the first tunnel at ground level to access the salt layers. He introduced room and
pillar mining which is used until today. Only 50% of salt is excavated from the working seam
while the remaining 50% is left as pillars. Prior to annexation of Punjab by the British Empire in
the year 1849, the salt mines in the province were owned and operated by the Janjua Rajas,
and after its annexation, the British Government took over the administration of these mines. In
1938, A British company established its first soda ash plant here at Khewra.

The enormous Khewra Salt Mines have the capacity to absorb

billions of people. Due to its enormity, it is humanly not
possible to see the whole mine. Salt has been extracted from
120km of this mine. And almost the same amount of salt is
present in the form of pillars holding the mountains. This mine
has 19 levels from which salt is extracted day and night. In the
hot summer it is cold and freezing. Whereas in winter it is
warm. Everyday thousands of people visit the salt mine from
distant places and experience the most unforgettable journey
of their life. The best quality salt extracted from this is called "transparent salt", also famous as
"Sheesh Mahal". The salt crystal in this mine varies from dark red, reddish, pink, white, and even
transparent. There are places within the mine with stunning bands of alternating colours that, of
course, only Nature can create. There are seven thick salt seams with cumulative thickness of
about 150 meters. At places rock salt is 99 percent pure. Salt is transparent, white, pink, reddish
to beef-colour red. In certain horizons it is crystalline. Inside the mine there are beautiful
alternate bands of red and white colour salt.

16
At the moment salt is mined in 19 different levels, producing about 325,000 tons per year, of
which 5,000 tons is being exported annually. The main tunnel at ground level developed by Dr.
Warth in 1872 has been converted into Tourist Resort. Thousands of tourists visit Khewra Salt
Mines every year. They are fascinated by nature’s beauty inside the mountain. Nearly 35,000 to
40,000 visitors, comprising college students, general public, and foreigners visit Salt Mines
Khewra every year. Impressed by the interest of the tourist, the PMDC Management launched
“Khewra Salt Mines Resort Development Project” in February, 2002 with an estimated cost of
Rs.4.2 million which now has been increased by another Rs.3 million. Khewra Salt Mines
Tourist Resort has been developed by PMDC.

Salt Mosque inside the Mines (courtesy trekearth.com )

17