RUSANGU UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

AGRI 212 – ANIMAL PRODUCTION SKILLS

MODULE

PREPARED BY
MR.M.HABUNGA (MSc, BSc AGRIBUSINESS MANAGEMENT, CBCA)

2024

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 ANIMAL PRODUCTION SKILLS
INSTRUCTIONS TO PARTICIPANTES:
1. Ensure to wear farm suitable attire e.g. work suit, gumboots, etc.
2. Always, carry a notebook to record daily activities conducted to feed into the final
report.
3. Ensure to implement assigned work by yourself in order to comprehend the skills
Course Description
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
This course is given to students registered for BSc (General Agriculture and Agribusiness
Management.), in the Department of Agriculture and Technology after undergoing
introductory theory courses and laboratory based practical sessions. In this course, students
practice all aspects of animal production and products processing which they covered the
theory in class. The course covers aspects of Cattle management, Goat Management,
Milking, Calf Management, Poultry (production, meat and egg) management, Feed
formulation and Mixing, Silage and Hay Making. It also covers aspects of animal diseases
and vector identification and management especially Tick Control and worm control.
3. COURSE OBJECTIVES
 To make students translate theory of animal production into practice
 To impart animal husbandry practical skills to students
 To allow students develop skills of decision making in a real field environment
Method of Grading
Assessment Points Percentage
Class Attendance 10 10%
Hands-on skill application 40 40%
Final exam 50 40%
Total 100 100%

Course Delivery Strategies

Lecturing method complimented with fieldwork is adopted for this course

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 FARM PLANNING AND
BUDGETING

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 MODULE 1

FARM PLANNING AND BUDGETING

Lecture No.1

Farm planning and control - Elements of planning, objectives, steps and

formulation of farm plans - Farm level management information systems.

A. FARM PLANNING

Market-oriented farming begins by determining what buyers want, in what form and when
they want it. This module looks at what you need to know about the planning process,
farm performance and the market. This will enable you to support farmers in preparing
farm plans, increase profitability and income.
Some of the decisions that farmers make when planning the enterprise and the farm are:

What crop should I produce and what variety or breed?

What area of land do I need?
How much should I produce?
When should it be produced?
How much labour will I need?
How will I produce it?

Farm planning is a decision making process in the farm business, which involves
organization and management of limited resources to realize the specified goals
continuously. Farm planning involves selecting the most profitable course of action from
among all possible alternatives.
i) Objectives of Farm Planning
The ultimate objective of farm planning is the improvement in the standard of living of
the farmer and immediate goal is to maximize the net incomes of the farmer through
improved resource use planning. In short, the main objective is to maximize the annual
net income sustained over a long period. The farm planning helps the cultivator in the
following ways:

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a) It helps examine carefully existing resource situation and past experiences as a basis
for deciding which of the new alternative enterprises and methods fit the situation in
the best way.

b) It helps identify the various supply needs for the existing and improved plans.

c) It helps find out the credit needs, if any, of the new plan.

d) It gives an idea of the expected income after repayment of loans, meeting out the
expenditure on production, marketing, consumption, etc.

e) A properly thought of a farm plan might provide cash incomes at points of time when
they may be most needed at the farm.

A farm plan is a program of total farm activities of a farmer drawn out in advance. An
optimum farm plan will satisfy all the resource constraints at the farm level and yield the
maximum profit.
ii) Characteristics of a Good Farm Plan

A good farm plan generally should have the following characteristics:

a) An element of flexibility in a farm plan is essential to account for changes in the

environment around the farm.

b) A farm plan should maximize the resource use efficiency at the farm.

c) It should provide for the attainment of the objectives of profit maximization through
optimum resource use and balanced combination of farm enterprises.

d) Risk and uncertainty can be accounted for in a good farm plan.

e) The plan helps in timely acquisition and repayment of farm credit.

iii) Components of Farm Planning: Any systematic farm planning necessarily has the
following five components:
a) Statement of the objective function: Many farmers aim at profit maximization.
However, some farmers do not go all out to maximize their profits, but have objectives
like cereal requirements for the family and fodder needs for the livestock.

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b) Inventory of scarce resources and constraints

1) Land: Location, topography, soil type, fertility, drainage, irrigation systems and so
on affect enterprises in many ways and hence, it is useful to divide all the land on a farm
into different enterprises.

2) Labour: On subsistence farms, all labour is supplied by the farmer and his family.
Thus, it is important to record the number of workers - male, female and children - and
the type of manual work each is prepared to undertake. However, in commercial farms,
hired labour constitutes a major component of costs and thereby inviting more attention
in the planning process.

3) Capital: Whether fixed, like buildings and machines, or circulating, like cash in
hand or in the bank, capital acts as a very powerful constraint.

4) Personal: Farmers’ past experience, attitude towards risks and uncertainties and
personal likes and dislikes influence the choice of enterprise.

5) Institutional: Market often serves as a constraint for the production of vegetables,

poultry, milk, etc. Even if the location of the farm is suitable for a particular crop
(commodity), a contract may still have to be obtained. E.g. Sugarcane growing near the
sugar mills.

6) Rotations: Maximum permissible area under a particular herd of cattle, flock of

goats or crop in a given season or minimum area constraints imposed on the acre under
some crops like legumes would serve in maintaining soil fertility and help controlling pest
and diseases.

7) Alternative Choices: Alternative choices in planning refer to the various

enterprises, crops and livestock, which can be considered for attaining the stated
objectives. There are alternate ways to use the scarce farm resources. There may be more
than one ways to produce the same enterprise. A comprehensive list of different
alternative enterprises can be prepared.

8) Input Output Co-efficient: The requirements of each of the several scarce

resources and the financial returns per unit of each enterprise or activity need to be

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considered here. The precision in planning depends more on accurate input-output data
than on the technique of planning.

9) Planning Technique: With a proper understanding of the planning environment

and use of precise input-output data along with true and realistic constraints, sophisticated
techniques give better results. However, common sense in the planning process could lead
to fairly good results.
One of the farm planning technique is listed below:

1. Budgeting.

Budgeting is most informal of all the planning techniques and the level of
sophistication gradually increases as we move from budgeting to linear
programming.
iv) Steps in Farm Planning: The various steps involved in planning are discussed
below:
a) Planning: This includes the identification and definition of the problem, collection
of information, identifying alternative solutions and analyzing each alternative. Planning
is the basic management function as it means deciding on a course of action, procedure or
policy. The control function is a source of new information, as the results of the initial
plan become known.

b) Implementation: Once the planning process is completed, the best alternative must
be selected and action should be taken to place the plan into operation. This requires the
acquisition and organization of necessary land, labour, capital and other inputs. An
important part of the implementation function is the financing of the necessary resources.

c) Control: This provides for observing the results of the implemented plan to see if
the specified goals and objectives are being met. Many things can cause a plan to go “off
its track”. Price and other changes, which occur after the implementation of the plan, can
cause the actual results to deviate from the expected. Control requires a system for making
regular checks on the plan and monitoring progress and results as measured against the
established goals. The dashed line in the chart represents the continuous flow of

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information from the control function back to planning, an important part of the total
system.

PLANNING: Draw
Up Alternative Plans.

IMPLEMENTATION: Select A
Plan and Put it into Operation.

CONTROL: Analyse and Evaluate Progress

of Plan over Time.

YES Are Planning Objectives

Being Achieved?
No
No
YES Does the Remedy Lie Within
the Farmer’s Control ?
Fiqure 1 Steps in Farm Planning

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9|Page
Lecture No 2.

Farm Budgeting? Partial, enterprise and complete budgeting.

B. BUDGETING

It may be defined as a detailed physical and financial statement of a farm plan or of a

change in farm plan over a certain period. Farm budgeting is a method of analyzing plans
for the use of agricultural resources at the command of the decision-maker. In other words,
the expression of farm plan in monetary terms through the estimation of receipts, expenses
and profit is called farm budgeting.
i) Types of Farm Budgeting: The following are the different types of farm
budgeting techniques:
a) Partial Budgeting.
b) Enterprise Budgeting.

c) Cash flow Budgeting.

d) Complete Budgeting.

a) Partial Budgeting: This refers to estimating the outcome or returns for a part of the
business,
i.e., one or few activities. A partial budget is used to calculate the expected change in
profit for a proposed change in the farm business. A partial budget contains only those
income and expense items, which will change, if the proposed modification in the farm
plan is implemented. Only the changes in income and expenses are included and not the
total values. The final result is an estimate of the increase or decrease in profit. In order
to make this estimate, a partial budget systematically, answers to following four questions
relating to the proposed change:
1) What new or additional cost will be incurred?
2) What current income will be lost or reduced?
3) What new or additional income will be received? and
4) What current costs will be reduced or eliminated?
The first two questions identify changes which will reduce profit by either increasing costs
or reducing income. Similarly, the last two questions identify factors which will increase

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 profit by either generating additional income or lowering costs. The net change in profit
can be computed by estimating the total increase in profit minus the total reduction in
profit. A positive value indicates that the proposed change in the farm plan will be
profitable. All the changes in farm plan that can be appropriately adapted with the help of
a partial budget can be grouped into three types. They are as given below:
1) Enterprise substitution: This indicates a complete or partial substitution of one
enterprise for another. E.g. substituting one acre of paddy for one acre of

sugarcane.

2) Input substitution: Changes involving the substitution of one input for another or
the total amount of input to be used are easily analyzed with a partial budget. E.g.
substituting machinery for labour.

3) Size or scale of operation: Included in this category would be changes in total size
of the farm business or in the size of a single enterprise. E.g. Buying or renting additional
land or machinery.
Example
The example below illustrates how a partial budget can be used to analyze the decision to
purchase replacements for a cow-calf herd rather than raise them. Heifer calves that would
have been held back from the herd can now be sold, resulting in additional income. Some
costs for developing the heifers will no longer be incurred, such as feed, health and labor
costs. Other costs, such as land ownership and depreciation on facilities, would probably
not change, so they can be omitted from the budget. On the negative side, the cost of
purchasing a bred heifer appears as an added cost. There is no reduced income entry, since
cull cow sales would be the same for either alternative. In the example, the projected net
change is negative, indicating that it would be more profitable to continue to raise the
replacement heifers. However, if suitable bred heifers could be purchased at a lower price,
the result might be different.

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 b) Enterprise Budgeting: Enterprise is defined as a single crop or livestock commodity.
Most farms consist of a combination of several enterprises. An enterprise budget is an
estimate of all income and expenses associated with a specific enterprise and an estimate
of its profitability. It is pre-requisite for the preparation of a complete farm budget. An
enterprise budget lists down all the expected output, both in physical as well as value
terms, for a unit of a particular activity (i.e., per hectare, per animal or per 100 birds) on
the farm. The enterprise budget is important since it depicts the relative profitability of
different enterprises or activities or alternatives, which can be used to determine the
relative dominance of different enterprises. It includes variable cost or total operating cost
and fixed cost including depreciation and interest on fixed asset. Any enterprise budget
can also be analyzed in terms of cash versus non-cash expenses and total cost versus
actual cash outlay.

ENTERPRISE BUDGET
Classification Poultry Province Western Cape
Enterprise Budget Name Broilers-Free Range District Swartland
Breed Ross Area Hopefield
Date Developed Thursday, 05 September 2019 Date Updated 20 September 2021
Developer Mzwanele Lingani Updater Mzwanele Lingani
Flock Size (Birds) 1 500

Unit Price Per Unit Quantity Total ( R ) Value

Per
Bird ( R
)
GROSS INCOME 98 441,00 65,63
Trading income 2 425,54
Contract market KG 38,50 1 059,00 40 771,50 27,18
Retail market KG 49,00 138,50 6 786,50 4,52
Wholesale market KG 53,00 317,00 16 801,00 11,20
Portions KG 60,00 358,00 21 480,00 14,32

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 Livers KG 35,00 57,60 2 016,00 1,34
Giblets KG 25,00 122,00 3 050,00 2,03
Hearts KG 25,00 144,00 3 600,00 2,40
Necks KG 25,00 109,44 2 736,00 1,82
Feet KG 10,00 120,00 1 200,00 0,80

MARKETING COSTS KG 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

GROSS INCOME minus MARKETING 98 441,00 65,63
COSTS
TOTAL ALLOCATABLE VARIABLE COSTS 70 721,90 47,15
DIRECTLY ALLOCATABLE VARIABLE 70 101,25 46,73
COSTS
CONSUMABLE ITEMS/COSTS
BREEDING BIRDS 9 300,00 6,20
Day old chicks Each 6,20 1 500,00 9 300,00 6,20

FEED SUPPLEMENT 34 469,60 22,98

Broiler starter Ton 7 360,00 0,88 6 458,40 4,31
Broiler grower Ton 6 880,00 2,20 15 101,60 10,07
Broiler finisher Ton 6 520,00 1,98 12 909,60 8,61

VACCINATION 806,51 0,54

Aviboost Poultry Tonic 1 Lt Litre 729,00 1,00 729,00 0,49
Stresspack 100G 34,45 2,25 77,51 0,05

BEDDING & CLEANING MATERIAL 2 154,85 1,44

Wood shavings Bale 57,00 29,00 1 653,00 1,10
Lime KG 5,00 31,25 156,25 0,10
Chlorine (HTH) KG 38,40 9,00 345,60 0,23

ELECTRICITY 6 162,00 4,11

Electricity/month R/Month 6 162,00 1,00 6 162,00 4,11

OTHER COSTS 17 208,29 11,47

Slaughter fee R/Bird 6,20 1 440,00 8 928,00 5,95
Processing fee R/Bird 6,33 275,00 1 740,75 1,16
Casual labour R/Manhours 21,69 301,50 6 539,54 4,36
GROSS MARGIN ABOVE DIRECTLY ALLOCATABLE VARIABLE
COSTS 28 339,75 18,89

INDIRECTLY ALLOCATABLE VARIABLE COSTS 620,65 0,41

Fuel R 296,43 0,20
Repairs & Maintenance R 324,22 0,22

GROSS MARGIN ABOVE TOTAL ALLOCATABLE VARIABLE COSTS 27 719,10 18,48

Interest on Working Capital 618,82 0,41

MARGIN ABOVE SPECIFIED COSTS 27 100,28 18,07

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 c) Cash - Flow Budgeting: It is essential to know about cash flow statement before using
the cash flow budgeting.
1) Cash Flow Statement: It summarizes the magnitude of cash inflows and outflows
over a period of time.

2) Importance of cash flow Statement: It helps to assess: i) whether cash would be

available in correct quantity at right time; ii) whether the surplus could be profitably
diverted and iii) timing and magnitude of borrowings required. The cash flow statement
may be constructed over annually, quarterly, monthly and weekly depending upon the
nature of business.

i) Cash inflows represent the amount of cash received during the particular time
period. It includes: a) the beginning cash balance, b) receipts through sales of farm and
non-farm assets and c) receipts of short term (operating), intermediate and long term
loans.

ii) Cash Outflows represents the expenses incurred in a given period of time. It
includes: a) Cash expenses (variable cash expenses, fixed cash expenses, non-farm
investment, and personal expenses), b) Repayment on operating (crop) loans and c)
repayment on intermediate and longterm loans.

3) Cash Flow Budgeting: A cash flow budget is a summary of the cash inflows and
outflows for a business over a given time period. As a forward planning tool, its primary
purpose is to estimate future borrowing needs and the loan repayment capacity of the
business. Cash flow budgeting is to assess the whole farm plan.
Table 2 Simplified Cash-Flow Budget
(Amount in K)
Particulars Time Period I Time Period II
1000
1. Beginning cash balance 1000
Cash inflow
2. Farm products sales 2000 12000
3. Capital sales 0 4500

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 4. Miscellaneous cash income 0 500
5. Total cash inflow 3000 18000
Cash outflow
6. Farm operating expenses 3500 1800
7. Capital purchases 10000 0
8. Miscellaneous expenses 500 200
9. Total cash outflow 14000 2000
10. Cash balance (5 – 9) - 11000 16000
11. Borrowed funds needed 12000 0
12. Loan repayment (principal and 0 12720
interest)
13. Ending cash balance (10 + 11 – 12) 1000 3280
14. Debt outstanding 12000 0

d) Complete or Whole Farm Budgeting: It is a technique for assembling and organizing

the information about the whole farm in order to facilitate decisions
Table 3 Complete Budget Showing Projected Income, Expenses and
Profit.
Particulars Amount (K)

I Income: i) Broilers 54,000

ii) Layers 43,000
iii) Goats 13,500
iv) Dairy products 40,000
Total income 150,500
II Variable Expenses: i) Fertilizers 11,900
ii) Chicks 3,600
iii) Plant protection chemicals 7,900
iv) Fuel and oil 4,050

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 v) Machine repairs 2,650
vi) Feed purchase 1,600
vii) Veterinary expenses and other expenses 30,100
viii) Custom hire charges 10,250
ix) Miscellaneous expenses 2,450
Total variable Expenses 74,500
III Fixed Expenses: i) Tax 2,600
ii) Insurance 1,250
iii) Interest on debt 22,000
iv) Machinery depreciation 7,200
v) Building depreciation 3,200
Total fixed expenses 36,250
Total expenses 110,750
Net Farm Income (K. 150,750 – 110,750 ) 39,750
about the management of farm resources. It attempts to estimate all items of costs and
returns and it presents a complete picture of farm business.

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 RECORD KEEPING

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 MODULE 1

PRODUCTION RECORD KEEPING

The farming environment is dynamic - always changing. It faces changes in technology,
prices, climate and institutions. These changes affect the performance of an enterprise or
enterprises in a farm. Records are essential in any management operation. A good record
keeping system will allow managers to monitor and evaluate the performance of their
production system. It will help them identity problem area in the production plan, and to
make the necessary corrective measures. Similarly complete records are useful to the
manager and technical advisors in assessing any problems in determining factors that
contribute to these problems, and in deciding what to do to control these problems.
In all spheres of life, adequate information is necessary for decision making. This is also
the case for farming decisions. Records are essential in any management operation.
Objectives
It is expected that at the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Define and explain the scope of farm records.
Definition and scope of farm records.
Records are statements of fact or data concerning a specific subject which may be specified
in physical, monetary, mathematical or statistical terms. Farm records pertain to
information recorded on the day-to-day operation of a particular farm.
Farm records can be defined as systematic documentation of all activities taking place in
a farm enterprise over a given period. It is an act of writing down every activity engaged
in on the farm in every production season and at different stages of the production process
up to the final disposal of the goods and services to the ultimate consumer.
Farm record keeping is more than just keeping track of what crop was planted in what field,
it is a concept applicable to the entire farm operation.
A complete farm record will include all daily activities and transactions and with a proper
accounting system it should be possible to have a complete estimate of the profit or
loss statement at the end of the year. By keeping a complete farm record on a yearly basis
it is possible to have a comparison between years and thereby determine the rate of growth
or deterioration of the farm.

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There are three basic types of farm records:
1. Resources inventories
2. Production accounts of livestock and crop operations.
3. Income and expenses records.
As a farmer, you use resources such as land, labour, machinery, breeding stock
management and financial capital. You must assign value to these resources and maintain
current inventories so that you know the foundation from which you operate, from this
resource base, you produce food and fibre. The production account of livestock and crop
shows how this resource base is combined with other inputs to yield physical output.
Consequently, production records, such as the relationship of feed to weight gain, cow to
number of calves, fertilizer to crop yield, or land to total production, are most critical to
your farm’s profits. Because farmers interact in a marked economy, the cost of the feed
and revenue from the market hog or the cost of the fertilizer and the price of the grain are
equally important. These income and expense records are related to each other and translate
production accounts into Naira and kobo.
Principles of Record Keeping
There are some general principles which apply to all record keeping and these are as stated
below:
1. All records, to be of value, must be accurate, neat and full. One way of making
sure that records are accurate is by filling them in as soon as possible after the
operation or transaction and by checking regularly.
2. All the results of record keeping should be compared with some standards which
may be the results for previous years or the results for other farms. By comparing
results and discussing problems together, farmers can help each other to improve
their management.
3. The record keeping system should fit into the farm organization or framework.
4. The person responsible for keeping the records should develop a habit of regularly
and accurately posting transactions.
5. All financial transactions should be made through the bank and the monthly
statement should be reconciled with the cheque book and record keeping system.

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 Types of farm Records
There are three basic types of farm records: resources inventories, production accounts of
livestock and crop operations, and income and expense records.
Records Inventories - As a farmer you use resources such as land labour, machinery,
breeding stock, Management and financial capital.
You must assign value to these resources and maintain current inventories so that you know
the foundation from which you operate, from this resources base, you produce food and
fiber.
Production accounts of livestock and crops - The production accounts of livestock and
crop show how this resources base is combined with other inputs to yield physical output,
consequently production records such, as the relationship of feed to weight gain, cow to
number of calves, fertilizer to crop yield, or land to total production, are most critical to
your farm’s profits.
Income and Expense records - because farmers interacts in a market economy, the cost
of the feed and revenue from the market hog or the cost of the fertilizer and the price of
grain, are equally important.

Production Accounts

Farm Resources Added inputs Farm Output

Resource Inventories Expenses Income

Fig 1: Types of Farm Records

Uses of Farm Records

Resources Inventories

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You must count and assign value to your resources to inventory your farm. These resources
include both assets and liabilities. Assets are all items you own; liabilities indicate what
you owe. Counting assets is relatively easy. With a notebook and paper, walk around your
farm and survey your assets. Record the number of milk cows, hectares of tilled land etc
valuing assets, is more difficult. Assets such as grain will probably be valued at the net
market price for which they could be sold. Tractor could be valued at their original cost
minus depreciation. Similarly land could be valued at its market price (if developed for
residential houses) or at its agricultural value. Liabilities are easier than assets to count
and value. A listing of debts to banks and other creditors usually is sufficient.
Production Accounts.
Production Accounts are used to measure the performance of crop and livestock enterprises
on the farm, some production information can be derived from income and expense
records, for example where total kilogramme purchased might be noted. Often included
under crop records are farm maps. Farm maps are used to describe soil conditions cropping
patterns, field layouts and building locations. Other written crop records show crop
rotations, yields, fertilizer rates and pesticide applications. This information can be
summarized and will indicate the efficiency of production.
Livestock and poultry records usually include subsections for mortality, breeding,
performance and feed information. Mortality records list the number of livestock and
track disease problems. Breeding records ensure that only superior individuals or groups
of individuals are used to parent offspring with desired characteristics.
Performance records for livestock are divided between birth and productive information.
Birth records indicate date of birth, important dates in the animal’s life, parental evaluation
and weaning information. Production records refer more directly to herd size, rate of gain,
kilogramme sold and purchased.
Finally, feed records are important in evaluating overall production efficiency. Feed
normally constitutes at least 50percent of the total cost of raising an animal for meat. The
type of feed ration, its formulation and the rate of feeding should be monitored closely.
Income and Expense Records.
A transactions journal and general ledger are useful for recoding income and expense
records. In the transactions journal, you record financial transactions as they happen. In the

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general ledger, you begin organizing your farm records into a meaningful format.
Important uses of the transactions journal and general ledger are to provide information for
the income statement and cash flow statement. With the income statement, you can
calculate farm profit.

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 SHEEP AND GOAT
PRODUCTION

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 MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION
Sheep and Goat are small ruminant and a multi-use animal which are commonly reared for
the meat (chevon and mutton). In the different parts of the world, they are raised for the
meat, milk, wool and leather. Sheep and Goats play an important role in food production
and micro-economy systems in developing countries. Their great popularity can be
explained by their good adaptation to many different climates (ecological adaptation) and
the many uses for which they can be kept for.
BASIC TERMS
1) Ewe: This is the female of a sheep especially when matured.
2) Doe: This is a matured female goat
3) Buck: This is a matured male goat
4) Ram: This is a matured male sheep
5) Kid: A young goat
6) Lamb: A young sheep
7) Kidding: This is the act of goat giving birth
8) Lambing: This is the act of a sheep giving birth
9) Wether: This is a castrated sheep/goat
10) Chevon: Goat meat Mutton: Sheep meat Gestation: Gestation can be defined as the
time between conception and birth.
11) Chevon: This is the flesh of goat used as food.
12) Mutton: This is the flesh of sheep used as food.
13) Heat period (estrus): This is a period during the reproductive cycle when female
animals become sexually receptive, signaling they are ready for mating

1. The importance of Sheep and Goats

Sheep and Goats are of high importance to people because of the many functions they
provide which include:
 Employment opportunity - Sheep and Goat creates opportunity of self employment
for small holder farmers, youths and women. This will reduce unemployment rate
and increase living standard.

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  Increase income generation through the sales of meat, grower and mature Sheep
and Goat for scientific research, and other uses.
 Safety during cash failure - Sheep and Goats serve as an inflation-proof bank
account which can be used when cash is required
 Can be operated in low investment - in comparison of starting other livestock
farming, interested small farmers can start with Sheep and Goats. Sheep and Goats
farming can bring opportunity of income generation at home for the small farmers
with low investment at small space.
 Compost fertilizers for crops - Sheep and Goat farming has a major contribution in
providing fertilizers to crop production. It has reduced the dependency to chemical
fertilizers and enhanced the production capacity of the land.
2. Breeds of Goats and Sheep in Zambia
2.1 Goat Breeds
SN Breed Characteristics
1 Red Kalahari (Meat)  Like Boer, Kalahari Red is a
breed of goat originating
from South Africa
 Has dark red coat color
 Mature doe can weigh 75 kg;
mature buck 115 kg; kids at
six months average 30 kg

2 Boer (Meat)  Boer goat is South-African

origin Goat
 This breed has white color
usually with brown neck and
head.
 Mature Boer goat can weigh
30 -50 kg

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  Kept mostly for meat
production.
 They are horned and have
lop ears.
3 Saaneen (Milk Goat)  A typical dairy-type animal,
it has a dished or straight
facial line and a wedge-
shaped body.
 Does weigh at least 64 kg.
The average height
measured at the withers, is
about 81 cm for does and 94
cm for bucks
4 West African Dwarf (WAD)  Found in southern country.
 They have a small size of
body and short legs. Such
characteristics allow them to
move easily through thick
vegetation of the forest.
 Their coat colors can be
different from black to white
or gray or even multicolored.
 Matured WAD goat weighs
20 – 25kg.
 They are resistant to
trypanosome and very hardy.
 WAD is used mainly for
meat but also has dairy
potentials.

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 2.2 Sheep breeds
SN Breed Characteristics
1 Black Head Persian (Meat)  Blackhead Persian is a polled
breed with both sexes lacking
horns. It has a black head, with
long pendulous ears, and a black
neck and a white body, with a
clear line demarcating the two
colours
 On average at maturity, rams
weigh 68 kg and ewes 52 kg. At
birth, rams and ewes weigh
about 2.6 kg
 Ewes lactate for approximately
84 days, produce 50 kg of milk
with 5.9% fat

2 Dorper (Meat)  South African sheep developed

by crossing Dorset Horn and
Blackhead persian sheep.
 breed has white color usually
with brown neck and head.
 Mature Boer goat can weigh 30
-50 kg
 Kept mostly for meat
production.
 They are horned and have lop
ears.

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 MODULE 2
MANAGEMENGT
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PRACTICES
Intensive system: This is a system of production where the animals are confined and not
allowed to search for food by themselves. Good housing and veterinary service are usually
provided for them and are fed cut grasses and legumes.
Semi-intensive system: This is a system of production whereby the animals are released
for grazing or scavenging on rubbish dumps, unguarded gardens, and when they return in
the evening to their owner’s homes. They are kept in an enclosure (corrals) or tethered to
a tree or peg and fed on cut – and – carry basis with cut grasses and browse supplemented
with household wastes. Extensive system: This is a system of production where animals
are allowed to graze or browse on large areas of land, in this type of system, houses are not
provided for the animals and they sleep in the open night.
2.1 Housing
Housing plays a significant role for a sustainable production Sheep and Goat, and like every
other livestock, proper housing system is needed during both cold and hot climates. The
house can be built with materials ranging from low to high cost but must be with durable
materials.
2.2 Importance of Housing in Sheep and Goat Production
I. Protection – a good housing system protects Sheep and Goat from rain and
adverse/harsh weather conditions (just like houses protect humans). A housing
system provides shade, predators, and prevent the animals from damaging other
people farm crops. With good housing, a water-proof roof and drought-proof walls
to keep out wet and droughts, will reduce the incidence of regular sickness.
II. For easy observation: Good housing makes it easier to keep an eye on your sheep
and goats. You can easily detect sick animals, notice commencement of heat period,
pregnancy and kidding.
III. For collection of manure: Chousing makes collection of dungs more easier for
organic fertilizer.

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IV. For easy restrain during treatments - With a good housing it is easier to restrain the
animals when need to be treated and/or to observe them. v. Promotes a clean farm
environment vi. Promotes easy taking of the stock size
2.3 Types of Housing Systems in Sheep and Goat Farming
Basically, there are two housing systems in Sheep and Goat production:
 The ground level (or deep litter) shed
 Elevated level (Stilted) shed
The ground level shed

Here the house is built with the floor directly on the ground level, the floor can be concreted
with or without bedding materials.
The elevated Sheep and Goat shed

In this housing system, the floor is raised from the ground (1m above the ground) in such
a way that both faeces and urine can drop easily. This housing system prevent Sheep and
Goat both from excessive cold and heat, hence fits for both humid and arid regions. The
wall is slated at space of 5cm and floor at 5’’, with a staircase that allow the animals to go
in and out. The house can be enclosed with a holding yard adjoin to a pasture for exercise
and grazing, respectively. The shed is easy to clean, and manure can be efficiently
collected. Daily cleaning or a system of piling up the bedding is necessary.

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 GENERAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Kidding
The following precautions may be taken after kidding to avoid kid mortalities:-
• Do not handle kids frequently immediately after birth and let the Does (mothers)
lick and recognize them properly.
• Newly born kids, after being licked by their mother, generally stand on their legs
and start seeking for teats to suckle.
• In case they are not able to do so, assist them to suckle colostrum.
• Take up artificial milk feeding or arrange foster mother for abandoned or orphaned
kids.
• To aid the adoption of the abandoned or orphaned kids by the foster mother, rub its
milk on the rump of the kid and the nose of the foster mother,
• Allow newborn kids to be with their Does all day long during the first week

Castration
• Castration is the process of rendering animal infertile.
• Castration is done to control breeding; only the males with desirable characteristics
will be allowed to mate the selected females.
• Castration is carried 2 – 3 weeks after kidding
How are goats castrated?
• There are two basic methods of goat castration;
1. Burdizzo castration:

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 • By using an instrument called a Burdizzo, the spermatic cords and blood
vessels are squeezed and destroyed.
• his stops the blood flow to the testicles and making the testicles to wither.
• This method is suitable for older goats

2. Rubber Ring Castration:

• By using an instrument known as Illustrator, a rubber ring is placed around
the scrotum above the testicles.
• This stops blood flow to the lower half of the scrotum causing it to shrivel
and drop within two weeks.
• This method is suitable for very young goats

Dehorning
Why?
• Prevents wounds which occur when animals fight or poke each other when
grouped together
• Makes handling of animals much easier
• Kids should be dehorned as soon as the horn buds begin to appear, usually at
about 2 weeks of age
• Hot Iron Method

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 • In this method a piece of iron is used, the end of which consists of a
circular cup-shaped depression which fits over the horn bud with its edge
touching the skin at the base of the horn.
• This iron is heated by fire until it is a dull red heat, and it is then pressed
over the horn bud and kept in position for 3 to 5 seconds when the base of
the horn is destroyed

Weaning
• Weaning is the removal of the kids from their mothers so that they stop sucking
milk and will depend entirely on grass.
• The weaning will in many cases take place naturally, because milk production has
stopped on its own accord.
• Weaning should be carried out at 4 - 5 months of age but where goats are herded
it may be difficult to put this into practice.

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Hoof trimming
Why hoof trimming?
• To prevent lameness due to overgrown hoofs To check for any injuries, ticks and
hoof rots and plan for control
Trimming
• This involves cutting of the outer horny part of the hoof which has
overgrown.
• Care should be taken not to cause bleeding
• Overgrown hooves are a problem during the rainy season and may lead to
foot-rot.
• A foot bath containing copper sulphate is used to control foot rot.
Hoof trimming is done using Hoof trimmers and Trimming Knives

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Identification
Why should goats be identified?
• Goats need to be identified for proof of ownership and recording purposes.
• In a communal set up where several flocks graze together, it may be very difficult
to identify goats
How can goats be identified?
• You can identify goats through;
• Ear tagging using ear tag applicator
• Ear notching using ear notcher
• Ear tattooing requires a special tattoo set and can not be read from a
distance.
Importance of goat identification;
• Easy records and management
• Identification should done 1-2 weeks after kidding

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Dosing
• Drenching or dosing is the method of giving animals medicine by mouth. E.g.
deworming
• It is very important to read carefully the instructions given with the product
on mixing and dosage rate before any attempt is made at drenching.
• Automatic ‘guns’ are now available which speeds up the operation where many
animals are to be treated.
• If a ‘gun’ is not available then a narrow necked bottle which will not allow too
much fluid to escape at once should be used.

Dipping/spraying
This is done to kill ticks (which are a threat to the livestock industry today), flies, lice and
mange.
Dipping
• In dipping, an open drum (or small dip tank) is used for dipping goats

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Spraying
• A knapsack sprayer or spray race is used
• It should be carried out regularly if it is to be effective.
• Once per week is recommended.

Weight estimation
• This is the measurement of animal weight
Why weighing the animals?
• To appreciate if the growth pattern is normal
• To determine correct feed requirements
• To determine the dosage of medication to be given or administered to the
animal.
• To determine the selling price
Equipment used to weigh goats
• There are three types of equipment that you can use.
Weigh band:
• The use of a measuring weight graduated tape to estimate the weight of an
animal.

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 • Measure from its girth.
• The girth is the perimeter of area around the chest.
• The weigh band is placed under the animal behind the front legs up to the
top of the shoulder.
The platform scale;
• A flat scale on which the goats stands in order for the weight to be taken.
• For accuracy, all four legs of goat should stand on the scale.
• This scale is usually placed in the cage in order to confine the animal to the
scale.
The spring balance;
• This is a commercial scale which has a hook from which the goat is
suspended in straps to have its weight taken.
• The scale is usually hanged at a height on a firm structure in order to get the
weight.

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38 | P a g e
 MODULE 3
HEALTH AND MANAGEMENGT
Next to proper feeding and suitable housing managements is health. These three are the
core management practices that determine the overall productivity and profitability of
Sheep and Goat farming. Good health practices also help in reduction of mortality rate of
newborn kids, and it provides knowledge, skill, and practice of control of infectious
diseases.
Health management includes parasite control, vaccine management, environment
management and proper record keeping as well as taking care of pregnant doe, newborn
kids, youth and adults. However, the saying that ‘prevention is better than cure’, is still
valid. As it may be impossible to remain completely disease and parasite free, thence if any
animal fall sick, farmer must treat such as quick as possible. Disease can be caused by poor
nutrition and/or disease-causing organisms.
3.1 Preventing Sheep and Goat from sickness
Below are some means of disease prevention in Sheep and Goat farming:
I. Avoid a damp and windy stall this will weaken the animals and make them
susceptible to diseases such as lung infections.
II. Avoid a filthy stall, this promotes the spread of causing bacteria and parasites
(worms).
III. Ensure animals are well fed. Insufficient feeding weakens animals and can cause
serious disorders (for example bloat).
IV. Practicing of rotation grazing prevent growth of parasites (worms, ticks) and
thereby prevent infectious diseases
V. Serve clean water ad lib
VI. Vaccination
VII. Control of internal and external parasites
VIII. Isolate sick animal from ailing Sheep and Goats
IX. Thoroughly screen and quarantine when bringing in new Sheep and Goat
3.2 How to recognize a sick Sheep and Goats
 Droopy/tired and poor or no appetite
 Stays aloof from herd

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  Loss of smartness and hair get risen, standing hunch
 Coarse and dull skin
 Mouth sore
 Low physical growth rate
 Red eye, runny and watery eyes
 Abnormal pulse speed/ breathing
 Loose faeces, mixed with blood or mucus
 Abnormal body temperature
 Dark yellow pee and sometime blockage of urine,
 Floating saliva from mouth etc.
Diseases Causes Clinical Prevention/Treatments
Symptoms
Bloat • Overeating of • Depression • Hold frontal legs of
damp and very old • Loss of appetite Sheep and Goat and
fodder • Bulging starts massage in left flank of
• Overeating of from left flank of belly
legume pastures or belly • Drench oil or feed
crops • Difficulty in paraffin liquid to Sheep
• Overfeeding with breathing and Goat
concentrate feed • Leg tricking and • Contact to technician if
bleating these treatments do not
heal
• Reduce the inclusion of
legume/pods
Diarrhea • Consumption of • Belly pain • Not • Diagnose the real
contaminated milk eating causes
(in kids) • Watery faeces • Give enough water and
• Consumption of • Dehydration in liquid
too much milk or prolong cases
colostrum. • Inability to stand

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 • Changes in • Sunken eyes • Give intravenous
environment • Weakness • treatment (saline water)
• Virus and internal Death • Use suitable antibiotic
parasites
Foot-and mouth Virus Excessive saliva Preventive vaccination
disease production and • Isolated the affected
frothing at the Sheep and Goats
mouth. • Slaughter affected
• Small blisters are animals
formed in the • Quarantine sick
mouth, on the legs animals
and on the liver. • Disinfection of all
Difficulty in animals (foot baths)
walking and limits
its own
movements
• Usually, no
mortality
Mastitis Bacteria – • Abnormal and • Milk the infected udder
Staphylococcus swollen udder empty as often as
• Milk can possible and massage it,
become lumpy and at least seven times a day
stinking • Inject antibiotics into
• Painful udder the udder via the teat
leading to does not opening and canal after
allowing its kid to milking it empty.
suck and is • To avoid passing on the
unwilling during disease, disinfect hands
milking after milking each Sheep
and Goat, before milking
the next.

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Internal parasites: Worms
Worm infection is a common occurrence, though farmer should be less worry about it, but
too many of parasites can weaken a Sheep and Goat. Sheep and Goat is more susceptible
to diseases and can even die. Some parasites also transmit diseases. Production and growth
decline even while no symptoms of disease show. Well-fed and cared for animals suffer
less from parasites infection. Worms are usually found in the lungs, stomach, intestines
and liver, and possibly other places. Common worms are: Flatworms (e.g. tapeworm) and
roundworms
How to avoid worm infection
Practice rotational grazing and avoid long and continual grazing by many animals on a
pasture. Otherwise, a high level of contamination of grazing areas will occur due to larva
in the excrement. Many parasitic worms are host specific, alternating the grazing with
different livestock can lower the extent of contamination of a pasture. De-worm both
mother and kids when weaning and keep the weaned kids separate from the rest of herd on
as clean as possible pasture.
External parasites
Some insects like flies, mosquitoes, fleas, lice, mites and ticks can, at some point of their
life cycle, parasitize on Sheep and Goats causing irritation. General hygiene in the stall is
the most important measure to avoid problems. To reduce insect attack, keep the immediate
surroundings of the stall free of manure and other organic waste.

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 MODULE 4
FEED AND NUTRITION
4.1 Feed components
Water
 Water is extremely important, irrespective of the feed materials fed to Sheep and
Goat
 Water is the cheapest feed ingredient.
 Although Sheep and Goats are probably among the domestic animals that can
survive longest without water, but prolong periods without drinking water may
cause their death
 Water consumption depends on the climatic condition, form and nature of the
feed and the physiological state • Sheep and Goat needs about 3-4 (or 10% body
weight) litres per day
 Low water consumption will affect feed utilization and hence reduce the
productivity
 The use of automated drinker, the problem of water supply to Sheep and Goat will
drastically reduce
 Do not give your animals the water you cannot drink
Protein
Usually, the most expensive component of the Sheep and Goat diet
 Required for maintenance, growth, reproduction, lactation, and hair production
 Forms a major component of blood, anti-bodies, muscle and milk
 Required both as a source of nitrogen for the ruminal bacteria and to supply amino
acids for protein synthesis in the animal’s body
 If low in the diet, digestion of carbohydrates in the rumen will slow and intake of
feed will decrease.
 Essential for fattening program
 Deficiency can lead to poor growth, susceptible to disease and death in the long run
 Unlike energy, excess of protein is not stored in the body of the Sheep and Goat

43 | P a g e
  Protein sources can be a. Plant: groundnut haulm, beans, cowpeas, cowpea husk,
browse tree, soybean meal, green pastures and high protein concentrates b. Animal:
fish meal, blood meal, feather meal

Energy
 Usually required in large quantity for growth and building of weight
 Comes primarily from carbohydrates (sugars, starch and fiber) and fats in the diet
 Sheep and Goats also need sufficient energy in their diet to allow them to grow,
reproduce and make milk
 Body condition scoring and weight gain can be used to see whether the Sheep and
Goats are getting enough or low energy
 Varies with age, developmental and physiological stages
 Energy sources include
1. Maize grain, sorghum and molasses, cassava, Cassava peel,
2. Lush leafy forage and browse, and tree leaves
Minerals
 Sheep and Goats require many minerals for major body function and best
production
 Major minerals likely to be deficient in the diet are salt (sodium chloride), calcium,
phosphorous and magnesium.
 Trace minerals likely to be low in the diet are selenium copper, and zinc.
 Low quality forages will be low in phosphorous
 Provide a mineral lick (available commercially) to meet up with the mineral needs
Vitamins
 Needed in very small quantities
 The vitamins most likely to be deficient in the diet are A and D
 All B and K vitamins are synthesis by bacteria found in the rumen of the Sheep and
Goat
 Vitamin needs can be met by administered orally or via injection

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Pasture
Pasture is a land covered with grass and other low plants suitable for grazing animals,
especially cattle sheep, and Sheep and Goat. A pasture can be existing naturally (i.e.
rangeland) or established. Established pasture is more productive than the naturally
occurring one, because it contains high producing forage/ fodder species (grass and
legumes).
Forage/fodder is any green plant eating by the animals either planted or naturally existing
while browse tree are multipurpose tree species which serve as feed to Sheep and Goat. A
forage species can be grass or legume. Grasses supply majorly energy, while legume
provides majorly protein. Both grass and legume can be annual, biennial or perennial
Grasses: Panicum maximum, Brachiaria, Cencurus, Cynodon, est.

Panicum maximum
Legumes: Sylo, Lablab, Centrocema, Arachi, Mucuna

Lablab
Browse species: Leucaena leucocephala, Moringa, Gliricidia est

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Leucaena leucocephala

4.2 Forage conservation

Basically, there are two methods of conserving forage for future uses, these are hay and
silage. But for the purpose of this training, hay will be discussed.
Hay
Hay dried grass with moisture content of 10-15%, and it can be stored for a year. Hay needs
to be well dried under sun to prevent fungus attack which may destroyed the hay. Hay is
best prepared during the early dry season. Hay can be fed just like fresh forage to Sheep
and Goat and avoid feeding spoilt hay to Sheep and Goat as this can cause stomach
disorderliness to Sheep and Goat. The followings processes should be followed while
preparing hay:
 Select the desire forage/fodder species • Consider the growing stage of grass (best
at the peak of vegetative growing stage)
 Cut and collect grass • Properly dried (time to time moving grasses
upwards/downwards) under the Sun
 Bundle (bale) and keep in store Note: It may take up to 4-5 days for grass to dry
out properly (depending on the weather condition). Also, avoid over-mature forage,
as this will be less nutritious.
Importance hay in Sheep and Goat farming
 Availability of feed during off-season (dry season)
 Saves cost for purchasing additional feeds
 Saves cost in producing forage during off-season
 Time and labor will be reduced for forage collection in the off-season

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 FEED FORMULATION AND PREPARATION

Feed preparation or formulation is the technique of combining ingredients to give a

composite feed that will meet the nutrient requirements of a particular farm animal
Formulating feed is both an art and a science.
• It is an art because;
• Good knowledge of the animal,
• Practical experience and
• Keen observation of the animal is essential.
• It is a science because;
• It involves some mathematical computations,
• Knowledge of some chemistry, physiology and bacteriology.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN FORMULATING RATIONS

• The species, the age and physiological status of the animal
• Know the nutrient requirements of the animal.
• Know the nutrient content of the raw materials or the feedstuffs that you are using.
• Consider the cost of ingredients.
• Palatability of the ration has also to be considered because it determines how readily
the feed will be accepted by animals e.g. if you add too much salt in the ration, the
feed intake will be low.
• Monogastric animals eat for energy, meaning that animals will continue eating the
feed until their energy requirement is met.
• If the feed has too much energy, animals will eat less feed to meet their
energy requirements; and this may lead to deficiencies of other nutrients.
• If the energy in the feed is too low, they will eat too much feed and will
mean too much consumption of other nutrients which will be a waste.
• Therefore, the energy requirement should not be exceeded by 10% of the
requirements and the deficit should not be more than 5%.
• The protein requirement should not be exceeded by 5% because protein sources are
very expensive.

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 • Essential amino acids, trace elements and vitamins have to be balanced.
• Amount of salt in the ration should be between 0.25 and 0.5%; in monogastric
animals and between 0.5 to 1.0% in ruminants. Beyond these limits the feed
becomes unpalatable.
• The restriction or safe maximum inclusion of each of the ingredients in the ration
should be considered e.g. all monogastric animals have their maximum fibre
requirement and these should not be exceeded.
• Ca and P ration should be 1:1 to 2:1 except in layers where it can go up to 6:1 to
7:1 due the high Ca requirement for egg production.

METHODS OF FEED FORMULATION

Method 1: Pearson Square Method:
• Pearson’s square method (PSM) shows the proportions of two feed ingredients to
be mixed together in order to obtain the percentage of the particular nutrients.
• It is useful in balancing for the protein requirements
Example1: two ingredients:
• Make a 14% CP ration using maize meal (10% CP) and soya beans (45% CP).

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Mixture verification
Using More Than Two Ingredients
• It is possible to mix more than two ingredients using the Pearson square.
• For example, to prepare a 15 percent crude protein mixture that consists of feed
containing;
• 60 percent soybean meal (45% CP) and 40 percent sunflower meal (45%
CP), and
• energy mixture of 65 percent maize (9% CP) and 35 percent sorghum meal
(12% CP), take the following steps.
• Since only two components can be used in the Pearson square method, the
ingredients are combined first as follows:

65% SBM x 45% crude protein = 29.25

35% SFM x 45% = 15.75

Protein in supplement mixture = 45.0%

65% MM x 9.0% = 5.85

35% SM x 12.0% = 4.20

Protein in grain mix 10.05%

Example 2: three ingredients, one fixed

• Make a 20% CP ration using maize meal (8%CP), sorghum (10%CP) and soya bean
meal (45%CP). Limit the use of sorghum to one quarter of the total grain (sorghum
will be ¼ of the mixture of maize and sorghum).
• The average CP in maize/sorghum mixture
(3:1) = (3 x 8) + (1x10) = 8.5%CP
4
• Use the 8.5% CP grain mixture in the Pearson Square with soya bean meal
Method 2: Simultaneous Equation Method (SEM):
• This method provides solutions to cases that were solved in the Pearson square
method. It is applicable in cases of two or more ingredients.

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 • Balance for both the protein and the energy
• Example 1: one nutrient from two ingredients
Make 20% CP mixture using maize meal (8%CP) and soya beans meal (45%CP).
• Make assumptions as follows;
• Let X = kg maize meal in 100kg mixture
• Y = kg soya bean meal in 100kg mixture
• Therefore, X + Y =100kg of mixture and 0.08x +0.45y = 20kg protein in 100kg of
mixture.
• Dummy equation;
X + Y =100 kg.
• Multiply by -0.08 so that the x term cancels out in the original equation.
• Therefore, (x + y = 100)-0.08, becomes -0.08x - 0.08y = -8
• Subtract the dummy equation from the original and solve for y

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 MODULE 5
BREEDING AND REPRODUCTION
Good reproduction is the capability of a Sheep and Goats to produce in a year or over a
period
THE BUCK
Male Sheep is known as “Ram” and Goat is as “buck” or “billy.” If castrated, it is called a
“wether.” Ram and buck up to 12 months of age are sometimes referred to as “bucklings.”
Ram and buck can come into puberty and breed ewe/does as early at 8 months of age, but
it is advisable to wait until the animal is a year of age before start using him for breeding.
Male to female ratio should be 1:10–15 at a time. The number of ewe/does a ram/buck can
service at one time also depends on individual sex drive of the ram/buck, the terrain of the
land and if he is managed by a hand- or pasture- mating system. The ram/buck has the
greatest genetic impact on the herd and should be well always taken care of. Day length
influences reproduction in the buck and the doe.
THE DOE
A doe (mature ewe/doe) can be sexually matured at 3-4 months of age and usually are in
estrous cycle before 7 months, but not advisable to breed at age below 8-9 months because
this can lower have physical growth thence it is not good for mating. The estrous cycle for
doe is 21 days; in 21 days doe comes on heat, and searches buck for mating. In 5 months,
Doe/Ewe do get on heat but considering its maturity, mating with buck is prevented. After
mating, doe gets pregnancy for 5 months or 150 ±5 days, and 142 to 152 days for ewe.
Particularly during the last six weeks of the pregnancy, extra attention must be paid to the
feeding of the pregnant doe as well as giving mineral and vitamin supplements.
Disadvantages of immature mating
 Low pregnancy rate
 Difficulty during labour
 Fear of abortion
 Premature birth
 Inadequate milk production and no growth of kids
Major signs of does and ewes on heat
 Wagging her tail

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  Less willing to take feeding, forage and fodder
 Suddenly reduced milk production
 Continuous bleating
 Mucus seen in the vagina
 Reddish and swollen valve
 Mounting to buck and Sheep and Goat whatever comes in front
For reproduction
 Does/Ewe age must reach 8-month-old and can be in reproduction service for 5
years or more depending on the management practices.
 Avoid in-breeding at any cost.
 Nursing doe and buck should not be kept mixed in same space, otherwise there are
chances of uncontrolled mating.
 Maintain male to female ratio of 1:10-15
 Male for breeding should not be too heavy or too skinny.
METHODS OF CROSSING
1. Natural mating: This is the mating of animals by natural means. A male and
female animal coming together to expressing their innate sexual behaviour to
produce their own progeny.
2. Artificial insemination: This is type of mating whereby the semen is collected
artificially from the male and then inseminated into the female to produce progeny
Age determination (Goat)
Age determination (Goat)
The age of Sheep and Goats can be determined by looking at the Sheep and Goat’s
teeth

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 CATTLE PRODUCTION SKILLS

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 • Calving/Parturition
• Castration
• Dehorning
• Weaning REFER TO GOATS/SHEEP
PRODUCTION
• Hoof trimming
• Identification
• Dosing
• Dipping/Spraying
• weighing

CATTLE OPERATIONS SCHEDULE

JANUARY Dose your cattle for worms, especially young stock.
FEBRUARY February is the last month for cows and heifers to run with a bull.
MARCH Spray all the December calves
Vaccinate cattle against Blackleg or Quarter evil
Vaccinate all heifers 4-8 months old against Contagious abortion.
APRIL Remember to dose your calves for worms
Start supplementary feeding to ranch cattle
Vaccinate your cattle against Anthrax & Quarter evil.
MAY Male calves to be castrated, except those selected for breeding.
Supplementary feeding to continue.
Weaning to start
JUNE Deworm all your cattle
Vaccinate young heifers against Contagious abortion
Weaning continues.
JULY Time to feed your cattle with supplements like urea, salt, licks, etc.
Remember to deworm your livestock.
AUGUST Weekly dipping of cattle as this is the beginning of the tick season.
SEPTEMBER Calving season starts this month
OCTOBER Calving continues.

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 Peak of supplementary feeding.
Increase water supply in paddocks.
NOVEMBER Vaccinate your cattle against Lumpy Skin Disease.
Prepare your paddock for grass planting.
DECEMBER Plant star grass.
Breeding bulls to be with cows this month.
Remember to dip or spray your cattle every 7 days.

CONTROL AND PREVENTION OF ANIMAL DISEASES

Vector control;
a) Dipping
 Done to kill ticks (which are a threat to the livestock ), and other external parasites.
 It should be carried out regularly if it is to be effective. Once a week recommended

b) Deworming,
 Internal parasites can affects the animal’s conception rate.
 animals can be affected by a number of internal parasites such as;
 Roundworms; most common are brown stomach worms. Their presence includes;
weight loss, diarrhoea and loss of condition
 Lungworms; this worm affects young animals, found in the lungs. Their presence
includes; coughing, difficulties in breathing and loss of condition.

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  Flukes; this parasite has three host (Cattle-snail-cattle). Liver fluke resembles a leaf
found in a liver.
 Rotational grazing and,
 Some instances bush fire

c) Controlled/ selective breeding;

 A method of disease control by avoiding selecting breeding animals with traits of
diseases.
d) Biosecurity
 Farm traffic control,
 Quarantine (fencing off the area),
 Hygiene (hand wash and foot bath)
c) Vaccination/immunization
 introduction of the disease causing agent into the body of any animal to boost the
immunity against it.
 animal’s body forms antibodies for that particular disease.
 The antibodies destroy the viruses or bacteria that causes diseases.
 The stronger the animal’s immunity, the better chance it has to fight the disease.

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 POULTRY
PRODUCTION SKILLS

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 MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION

• Poultry are domesticated birds kept for their meet and eggs, which includes;
chicken, quails, turkeys etc.
• Commercial chickens include;
• Broilers
• Broilers are fast growing birds of young age, kept and used for meat
purposes
• They attain live body weight of 1.5 kg or more, consuming 2.75 to 3kg of
feed in 37 to 42days
• Layers
• Layers lay table quality eggs
• Layers starts laying from 17 weeks, have a laying period of 52 weeks, and
may lay 150 to 300 eggs per year.
• Breeders
• These are birds of both sexes which are kept for breeding purpose to obtain
fertilized eggs for hatching to get chicks i.e. broilers or layers
Important factors to consider
• Birds have the best feed conversion ratio (FCR) and feed efficiency
• Dressing percentage is more than 60% in poultry as compared to large animals of
50 – 55%
• At least 2 eggs laid within 24 hours
• Several crop by products and agricultural waste are used in feeding poultry
• Poultry farming is within the reach of small scale farmers and offers good
opportunity for investors with limited financial resources.
• Poultry Production is of importance in Food production, research, industry, income
generation as well as a hobby.

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 BROILER MANAGEMENT
A bird kept for meat production. A good broiler will show the following characteristics:
a) Produce meat of good quality.
b) Should reach a suitable market weight of 1.5 - 2.5 kg within 5 - 7 weeks of age.
c) Should have well-developed breast and thigh muscles.

The brooding, monitoring and control of brooder temperatures described applies to both
pullets and broilers. The only difference lies in the fact that broilers use specialized strains
for fast growth, so as to be ready for market at 5 - 7 weeks. Layers chicks are reared for
another 13-15 weeks before they start to lay eggs for a year.

Record keeping

Introduce a record card in the brooder house for records management;

 Date of arrival
 Number of chicks
 Weekly live weight of chicks (weigh at least 10% or a few, all the birds on arrival).
Weekly live weight assist in determining whether there are any problems in nutrient
content of the feed, if there are toxins in feed causing decrease in growth rate,
too high or too low environmental temperatures reducing growth rates,
subclinical diseases slowing down growth.
 Food consumption- useful for determining feed conversion ratio as well as for
monitoring feed wastage through spillages.
 Vaccinations and medication data also put on the card.
 Mortalities - at least 98 -100% rearing is very good. 95 - 98% is good but when
less than 95% is poor and the brooding system should be reviewed.
 Any unusual circumstance which may affect flock performance.

Broiler Feeding

1. Type of bird

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Broiler have been specifically bred and selected to grow rapidly, convert food more
economically and to have a better meat quality than layers.

2. Type of feed

Broilers can only be expected to make maximal weight gains on the correct type of food.
The Zambia Bureau of Standards recommends a starter feed with CP of 22% and finisher
feed with CP of 18%. There is an intermediate grower feed with 19%. Experiments
however, have proven that birds fed starter feed up to 4 weeks or 28 days of age and then
fed finisher feed have higher live weights than those fed starter up to 2 to 3 weeks, followed
by grower and then finisher fed from 5 weeks till marketing.
3. Quantity of feed

Broilers must be fed at libitum, i.e. food must be present at all time. Broilers have large
beaks and ever increasing appetites that surpass other birds at any time. If feed wastage is
avoided, broilers consume 300 – 350 Kg per 100 birds. Superior strains may consume even
less. Economical Feed conversion ratio is usually less than 1.8 or 1.8 kg even less for feed
consumed for every kg of live weight.

4. Provide vitamins

For the birds in their 3-4 weeks when growth is most rapid vitamins should be provided.
The feed conversion ratio is highest in the early days of life. Rapid growth during this period
means that the birds will reach market weight earlier. Older birds grow more slowly.

5. Growth promoters

These are usually antibiotics, may be administered in the first 5 to 10 days. The benefit of
these antibiotics is that they assist the young rapidly growing chicks to combat infections,
which may affect growth of the birds. Any delay in growth translates into increased feed
costs during the extended feeding period for the birds to reach market weight.

Make sure that the birds are kept healthy. Ill health will slow down growth of the birds.

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Processing and Marketing of Broilers

Broilers in Zambia reach market weight at about 5-7 weeks depending on the strain. Spent
layers are also slaughtered for meat. There are currently two ways of presenting birds to the
market;
1. Selling live birds
2. Selling dressed birds. Some farmers sell their birds to processing plants

MANAGEMENT OF LAYERS

A layer is a female bird that is kept to produce eggs. A good layer should have the
following characteristics:

a) Produce a large number of eggs in a year. A good layer will produce about 210-310 eggs
under good management
b)Be smaller in size compared to broiler.
c) Produce poor quality meat compared to a broiler.

Type of feed

The Zambia bureau of standards (2000) has five recommended feeds for layers. ZABS
has recommended that these birds be fed a Pullet Starter diet, containing 19% CP, up to
the age of 8 weeks. Thereafter, the birds are fed a lower CP 14% Pullet grower diet until
the 15th week of age when they are fed a higher CP 15% and high calcium containing Pre-
layer feed in preparation for the laying stage. The protein content of the pullet grower feed
(8-15 weeks old) is reduced to delay the sexual maturity of the birds and avoid the
production of eggs which are too small. From the 18th week through to the 60th week a higher
CP of 17% and still higher calcium containing Layer 1 feed is fed to the laying birds. This
provides the extra protein and minerals required for deposition in the egg and its shell.
From 60th week the layers are in phase of laying where egg production is declining. The
protein content of Layer II feed fed during this phase has 16% CP.

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Pullet chick management

Brooding of layer chicks is the same as that for broiler chicks. The main variations in
management are in the vaccinations administered. Consult the hatchery where the
chicks came from for the vaccination applicable to the particular strain supplied. A
tentative program can be as follows;
• The chicks are vaccinated against Marek's disease at less than one day old.
This is usually done at the hatchery.
• At 4 - 6 days they are vaccinated against Infectious Bronchitis and Newcastle
disease (if the Newcastle disease was not done at the hatchery.
• At 10 days of age the chicks are debeaked i.e. one third of the top beak is cut about
2mm from the nostrils. This is done to reduce pecking and cannibalism. This may
be exhibited as toe-pecking, feather-pecking or vent pecking. Once blood is
drawn, the pecking worsens and the victim may be killed.
• At 4 weeks give the birds amprolium for 5 days and vaccinate against fowl pox.
• At 6 - 8 weeks of age restricted feeding commences. The birds are changed at this
time from starter to a grower diet which has lower protein content. Restricted
feeding can be in the form of restricting the amount of feed or restricting nutrient
levels in the diet. This is done to delay sexual maturity and should continue until
20th week.
• At 18 weeks the pullets must be introduced gradually to layers ration which
contains16% CP and not less than 2.5% calcium though 3.5% calcium is more
ideal. Deficiencies of calcium, phosphorus, manganese and vitamin D3 leads to
poor shell quality. Low vitamin A levels may increase the incidences of blood spots.
The objective of introducing layers is to produce a kilogram of eggs of good quality
at the lowest possible feed cost.
• Pullets reach point of lay at 19 - 22 weeks of age, at this stage; a farmer should
remove or cull all birds which appear unfit to be layers. Laying birds have a large,
smooth, bright and glossy comb while the comb of a non laying hen is dull, dry,
shriveled and scaly. The vent of a laying bird is large (can accommodate 3 to 4

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 fingers), it is also smooth and moist. The vent of none laying hen is shrunken (may
only accommodate one finger), it is also puckered and dry.

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 MODULE 2
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
• Clean and refill waterers daily
• Add a vitamin/mineral supplement to the water of young fowl for the 1 st week to
help them get off to a better start
• Observation of the flock is important particularly for signs of unusual behaviour
• Debeaking: removal of part of the lower or upper tips of the beak to prevent
cannibalism (flesh eating)
• Despurring: removal of spur (horny projections above the claws on the legs of
male birds)
• Toe clipping: removal of part of the toe to avoid tearing of the flesh during mating
• Wing tagging: done for identification
• Vaccination/Immunization: Day-old (Newcastle vaccine and Marek ‘s disease ),
IBDV (Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine) i.e Gumboro at 2 weeks and Lasota at
the 3 week or vice versa
• Lighting: birds naturally reproduce in long light periods (14 – 16 hours)
• For broilers; keep light throughout the night, to prevent cannibalism
LAYERS
A good layer can be recognized by the following characteristics:
• bright red comb and large wattles.
• bright and alert eyes moist vent.
• tail feathers are short and stubby due to her
• frequenting the nest boxes.
• width between the pelvic bones and the end of the breast bone is wide.
• Low production of eggs
• Always feed the layer the right type of feed. Any kind of feed may result
in the following:
• slow growth rate
• Long time to start laying eggs
• Fewer eggs laid
• Reduction in the resistance against diseases.

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 Culling
Culling:
 This is the practice of removing from the flock those birds which are not laying
economically or because of ill health.
• Low production of eggs may be due to
• feeding wrong type of feed
• Insufficient food
• Poor water supply
• Parasite and diseases
• Old age
• Over crowding
• Stress (noise, light and temp changes)
Culling Chart

Litter Management
• Litter is the common name used to refer to any material that is layered on the floor
of a poultry house and is used as bedding.
• Good litter should;
• Be non toxic to birds
• Be free from contamination
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 • Be very absorbent
• Have a reasonably short drying period
• Have reduced thermal conductivity
• Be readily available and less expensive
• Important functions of litter include
• The ability to absorb moisture,
• Dilute feacal material, thus minimizing bird to manure contact.
• Provide insulation and cushon from cold floor temperatures.
EXAMPLE OF MATERIALS USED AS LITTER
• Hardwood Shavings - may contain tannins which cause toxicity concerns and
splinters that may cause crop damage.
• Thatching grass – Need to be chopped and dust free before use
• Sawdust – not very much recommended because its too fine. and chicks may
consume it, which may cause aspergillosis.
• Chopped straw - wheat straw is preferred to barley straw for absorptive qualities.
Coarse chopped straw has a tendency to cake in the first few weeks.
• Paper - difficult to manage when wet, may have a slight tendency to cake and
glossy paper does not work well.
• Rice Hulls - an inexpensive option in some areas, rice hulls are a good litter
alternative.
BIOSECURITY
• Biosecurity refers to all the activities that must be done on a poultry farm to prevent
diseases.
• On-farm disease control programs involve:
• Keep visitors away or to a minimal level without disinfecting their foot wear
• Practice sound rodent and pest control program
• vaccination programs to be done on time and properly
• Early detection of ill health (monitor health status and production
parameters), and
• Proper hygiene and sanitation; this includes disinfection of all equipment
and pens, regularly washing feeders and drinkers

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 • Giving your birds clean and healthy water
• Vaccinate at right times
Housing and Biosecurity
• Treatment of identified disease conditions.
• Good ventilation and relatively dry matter
• Isolation of all sick birds
• Quarantine of all new birds
Practice all-in all –out farming
• Rest the poultry house to allow for disinfection of poultry and complete removal of
litter between batches
• Have foot baths on entry to poultry and farm

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DEBEAKING
• This is the removal of a portion of the birds beak to prevent the birds from injuring
one another by pecking which is described as cannibalism. Chicks are debeaked
atleast 1-3days of age
• For layers just before they begin to lay.
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70 | P a g e
 POULTRY HOUSING SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT

1.0 PRACTICAL NUMBER 1.0: Identification and uses of various poultry equipment

Bell shaped drinker Automatic drinker

Round Feeders Feeder Trough

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 Infrared Lamp Live bird transport crate

2.0 PRACTICAL SKILL No. 2: Housing

2.1.0: Types of Poultry houses

Generally, there are 3 types of houses used for poultry. These are the open sided, curtained
and closed houses. Open sided houses are widely used in Zambia.

2.1.1.0 Characteristics of houses

2.1.1.1 Open sided house

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 Orientation: East to west
 Sides of long walls are open
 Height of wall for the long sides is 40- 100 cm high (preferably 45 cm0.
 Windows are covered with wire mesh (1-2 m high. Preferably 1.6m)
 Roof over hang is 1-2 m long.
 Height of house is 4-5 m long.
 Cheap

These houses are more popular in tropical countries as they provide natural ventilation

2.1.1.2 Curtained houses

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These are a modification to open sided houses. The sides of the houses are similar to open
sided houses but are in addition to the wire mesh also covered with curtains. The curtains
are used to regulate the amount of ventilation. They are opened when it’s hot and closed
when it’s cold. The curtains are opened from bottom to top. These houses are more suitable
in areas where extreme variation in temperatures. They are also suitable for tropical
counties.

2.1.1.3 Closed houses/ Windowless houses

As the names suggest, all the 4 walls of the house are closed. The environment in the house
is mechanically controlled. This makes the houses expensive. The houses are more suitable
in very cold or hot counties.

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 1.2.0 Housing Systems

The most important housing systems are:

 Full litter system

 Combinations of slates and litter

 Full slated floors

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  Cages

Different types of poultry exist with the following being more important:
 Broilers : age 0-6 weeks: Production targets: Meat production, body weight 2.0-
2.5Kg
 Layers : age 18 – 80 Weeks; Production targets: table eggs production 280-330
eggs; body weight 2 kg.
 Broiler breeders: age 21 – 65 weeks; Production target: Hatching eggs 165-180;
body weight, Hens 2.5- 3.5 Kg

Not every kind of poultry can be kept in all the housing systems listed above. The
selection of the housing system to adopt is dependent on the type of poultry to keep e.g
Broilers are best suited for the full litter system. When kept on slated floors or wire
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 mesh, they develop leg problems and breast blisters. It’s also not advisable to keep
broiler parent stock in full-slated housing systems. This is because the males will have
leg problems and thus do less mating.

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PRACTICAL SKILL NUMBER 3

Poultry standards (Housing and equipment) and their application

It’s necessary that birds be provided with the correct quantity and quality of feed for them
to produce well. However, It’s important to realize that birds will not perform well for as
long as the floor space and number of equipment provided are not adequate. In order to
determine the minimum number of equipment (feeders, drinkers, nests, heaters etc) and
size of house for a given number of birds, farmers use standards.

Standards are simply figures developed through years of experience in poultry keeping.
These are not laws but simply guides. Thus they can be changed to suit the situation.

Standards can be used for the following:

 Designing of poultry houses e.g. determining the size of house to build, size of windows
for the house etc
 Planning e.g. determining the size of house and number of equipment required for a
number of birds before they arrive.
 Solving farmers existing management problems such as high number of floor eggs,
poor flock uniformity, wet litter etc.

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 POULTRY STANDARDS USED IN TROPICAL COUNTRIES

1.0 Stocking density (No. Of birds per m2)

Housing system Types of poultry

Broiler Layers Broiler breeders
Full slats or wire 15 7.0 -
floor
½ slats, ½ litter - 5.0 3.5
Full litter 10 4.0 3.0

2.0 Eating space in cm per bird

Type of feeder Type of poultry
Layer Pullet Layer Broiler Layers Broiler
0-8 week pullets breeders
8-18
Long/trough 7.0 9.0 5.0 12 18
feeders
Round/tubular 3 4 2 5 7
feeders

3.0 Drinking space in cm per bird

Type of drinkers Type of poultry
Layer Layer Broiler Layer Broiler
pullets pullets breeders
0-8 weeks 0-8 weeks
Long/trough 1.5 2.0 1.0 2.5 3.5
drinkers

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 Round 1.5 2.0 1.0 2.5 3.5
drinkers/Chick
founts/automatic
drinkers

4.0 Laying nests

Types of nests Type of poultry
Layers Broiler breeders
Individual nests 7 5
(Hens per nest)
Communal nests 70 50
(Hens per m2)

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PRACTICAL NUMBER 4

BROODER HOUSE PREPARATION

Brooder house preparation starts 1-2 weeks before the arrival of day old. This involves the
following:
1. Cleaning and resting the house: This is done 1-2 weeks before the arrival of
chicks. For the procedure, see theory notes. Both the cleaning and resting of the
houses are aimed at destroying the disease causing organisms, external and
internal parasites.

2. Brooding ring: When using heaters (local heating system), we need to set up a
brooding ring in order to keep the chicks nearer to the heat source. The ring
should be set 24 hours before the arrival of chicks. A brooding ring is a guard
preferably made of closed materials such as cardboards, Iron sheets or wire
covered with sacks to prevent drought/draft. In closed houses, where there is no
risk of droughts, you can use open guards. The height of the guard should be
about 45 cm.

Stocking density
Brazier brooding +/- 25 birds per sqm
Post brooding +/- 10 birds per sqm
Electrical/Gas brooding +/- 35 birds per sqm
Post brooding +/- 10 birds per sqm

3. Litter: Place the litter inside the guard. Start with a layer of 5-10 cm. Litter
material should have the following characteristics: Good ability to absorb
moisture, free from moisture, free from moulds, soft and comfortable and
should also be clean. The following materials can be used as litter: wood
shavings, sawdust, grass, shredded maize stalks, baggass, sand etc.

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 4. Cover the windows with curtains. These will prevent droughts. The windows
should covered 24 hours before the arrival of chicks.

5. Heaters: Connect and switch on the heaters 24-36 hours before the arrival of
chicks. This will warm up the room and prevent chilling of chicks. Each chick
should be provided with 2.3 watts-9.3watts depending on the weather.

6. Placement of feeders and drinkers: Place the drinkers and feeders in a circle.
Place at least 1 chick fount per 75 chicks and 1 feed plate per 100 chicks. If the
trough feeders are used, the eating space should at least be 2.5 cm per chick. In
the absence of feeders, feed can be spread either on paper or sacks. 25% of the
brooding space should be covered with paper. DO NOT PLACE THE
FEEDERS AND DRINKERS DIRECTLY UNDER THE HEATERS.

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PRACTICAL NUMBER 5

Culling in layers

Culling in layers means the removal of non-productive hens or hens with bad
characteristics such as lameness, blindness, etc from the flock. This is aimed at reducing
the feeding cost and improves the profitability of the flock. There are two types of culling;
mass and individual culling.

Mass culling

This is the culling done at the end of the production cycle (52 weeks of egg laying) when
all the hens in a flock are disposed off.

Individual culling

This is the removal of individual non-productive hens or hens exhibiting bad characteristics
from the flock.
Characteristics of productive and non-productive hens

PRODUCTIVE HENS

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 Bright and alert
 Scruffy feathers
 The skin will have a white
pigmentation
 Combs and wattles are fully
developed with a bright red colour
 Belly will be full and soft
 Distance between breast bone and
pubic bone will accommodate 4
fingers.
 At least 2 fingers are accommodated
between pubic bones
 Vent will be large and moist

 Dull
 Well preserved feathers
 Skin will have yellow pigmentation
 Combs and wattles are poorly
developed with a dull red colour.
 Belly will be empty.
 Distance between breast bone and
pubic bones will accommodate less
than 4 fingers
 Less than 2 fingers are accommodated
between the pubic bones
 Vent will be small and dry

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PRACTICAL NUMBER 6
Debeaking in layers

Debeaking is the removal of part of the beak by cutting. Both the upper and lower beaks are either
cut to the same length (more popular) or the lower beak can be slightly longer. About 1/3 of the
beak is cut off.
Debeaking is done when birds are between 8 and 12 weeks old. It should not be delayed longer
than 12 as it may delay onset of maturity and onset of egg production. If done too early, a second
debeaking will be necessary. Most hatcheries beak trim the chicks at day old.
Debeaking can either be done by use of an electric debeaker or by manual debeaker.

REASONS FOR DEBEAKING

1. Prevent cannibalism
2. Prevent egg breaking
3. Reduce feed wastage
Note
Debeaking has now been banned in most European Countries, as it is an inhumane practice.
Procedure for manual debeaking

 Put an iron on fire

 Handle the bird firmly under the armpit.
 Place the head of the bird between the thumb and first finger.
 Then Place the first finger between the upper and lower beak. Ensure that the tongue is below
the finger.
 Cut off 1/3 of the upper beak and to the same length the lower beak.
 Cauterize the cut surface with a hot iron to stop the bleeding.
 Deep the beak in healing oil to aid healing.

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 THE END
WISHING YOU THE BEST IN YOUR
ACADEMIC ENDEAVOR

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