AGRI 101: INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE

DR. MUUKA F. PERCY CELL NO. 0977 427740EMAIL:

[email protected]

REFERRENCES

1. John H. Martin,Warren H. Leonard and David L. Stamp.: Principles of

CropProduction. 1992. Macmillan Publishing Co. New York.
2. Simmons I.G. 1981. The Ecology of Natural Resources. Butler &
Turner Ltd.

3. Janick J. Et al. 1984. Plant Science.An Introduction to world

Crops. W.H. Freeman &Co. London.
3. CobleyL.s. & Steele J.H. 1976. Introduction to the botany of
tropical crops. Longman group. London.

The Course considers the basic elements of agriculture.

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UNIT 1.0: INTRODUCTION

Importance and Challenges of Agriculture

Agriculture and all the other sciences related to it have an important

role to play in generating the large increases in crop yields that are
needed to feed a burgeoning human and animal populations in the
world in a sustained way, in order for the sector to contribute
towards bothattaining food securityandnational economic
development.

Increasing total production in a sustainable manner without

increasing the land area under cultivationis a huge challenge that
can only be met by integrative scientific investigations.

Agriculturalists and farmers have achallenge to boost agricultural

productivity and productionsustainably in order to feed this increase in
both human and animal populations, but hunger-stricken communities
are food insecure both at household and community levels. This
negates the development of national economies especiallywhen food
imports become a necessity in order to offset food deficits.

UNIT 2.0: PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

General nature of crop plants

Most important crop plants arepropagated bytrue seed,and are

classified as spermatophytes or seed plants. In the life cycles of these
plants the seed (which most people regard to be the number one
agricultural input)germinates(either Hypogeal: each cotyledodonof
each seedremain in the soil below the soil surface during seedling
emergencee.g. in monocotyledonous crops or Epigeal:both cotyledonsof
each seedcome out of the soil surfaceduring seedling emergence e.g. in
dicotyledonous crops) and produces a seedling, during the seedling
stage of crop growth.

The vegetative phase is characteristized by rapid increases in the

number and size of roots, stems and leaves.

Later, the reproductive phase is reached during when the plant

flowers,produces seeds and attains zero growth rate.

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2.1. Plant anatomy

2.1.1. Function and Types of root systems in crops

Roots relate to the underground portions of the plant. Roots may take
up to more than half of the plant structure.

Most of the water and mineral nutrientsare absorbed by plants

through the roots. The roots also serve asanchorage for the plants.

i. Fibrous roots

These are roots that are characterized by alarge number of lateral roots
with no dominant root present i.e. i.e. have many slender roots that are
similar in both diameter and length with somewhat smaller branches.

These roots emerge from a central bottom point of the plant, a

situation existing in cereal crops and grasses .

Theprimary or seminal rootsdevelop when the seed germinates

growing from the lower end of the embryo.

ii. Tap root

This is the type of root system in which the root mass is dominated
byone main root known as the tap root with lateral rootsbranching
off from the tap root e.g. in legumes, cotton and root crops like cassava.

The thickened taproot of biennial or perennial plants often serves as

an organ for food storage.

2.1.2 Plant Shoot system (Stems)

The shoot system in crops comprises of the upper parts of the plant
above the soil and these includestems, branches, leaves,
inflorescence,flowers, fruits and other upper plant modifications,
such as Tendrils and Thorns.

Functions of plant stems

The functions of stems include:

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 i. To conductionwater and mineral solutesfrom the soil mainly
through the xylemvesselsto other parts of the plant..
ii. To conduct synthesized food materials through the phloem
vesselsfrom the leaves to other parts of the plant.
iii.To support and hold the leaves in the right positionsfor full
photosynthesis and transpiration to take place.
iv. To manufacture carbohydrates as in young stems that contain
chlorophyll.
v. For the storage of carbohydrates as in sugar cane.

General structure of stems

The stem is commonly divided by nodes while the stem section between
any two adjacent nodes is known as aninternode.In grasses the
internodes when young are solidi.e. filled with thepith. In the
matureplant the pith usually disappears except in sugarcane, corn and
sorghum. The stem or culm of a grass is usually cylindrical or nearly so.
Theculms of most grasses die down onto the soil surface each year or usually
after the seed has matured.

In addition to the main stem, several branches known as tillers may

arise from the base of the lower nodes.Large numbers of tillers may
arise under favourable environmental conditions. Some tillers may
develop independent root systems of their own.

There could be Primary tillers; Secondary tillers; and Nodal

tillers.Tillers in cereal crops, just like branches in tree crops,
contribute towards increasing yield, and hence are one of the major
yield components.

Monocotyledonous crops

After the hypogeal germination(i.e. when the single cotyledon on each

monocotyledonous crop seed present in cereal crops do not come out of the
soil during seedling emergence)in cereals and other monocots, the plumule
internodes elongate into the first young stem.Stem
elongationcontinues by the growth ring(intercalary meristem) above
each successive node,when the cells are still young and active.

Growth in the diameter of the stemof cereals and other grassesis due to
cell enlargement, not through cell division. Thisoccurs after all the
essential stem structures have been formed.

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Dicotyledonous crops

In dicotyledonous crop plants like in most legumes, i.e. those other than
cereals and other grasses, epigeal germination(i.e. where the two
cotyledons per each seed in dicotyledonous crops do come out of the soil
during seedling emergence)occurs and growth is much like that of a
tree. New branches arise from buds or adventitious cells.

Elongation of branchesis by bothcell division and cell

enlargementoccurring near the tips called Epical meristems.

Growth in diameteris fromcell division in the cambium layer under

the barkor periderm, which then is followed by cell enlargement.

It is vital to sow dicot seeds shallowly in order to enhance the cotyledons

to come out of the soil with ease, while large sized monocot seeds could
be sown relatively deep(but not deeper than the recommended planting
depth), to enhance water imbibition (uptake) by the seed that is
necessary for enhanced seedgermination (i.e. triggering the initial growth
and development of the radical [i.e. first root) and plumule (i.e. first shoot] of
such seeds.

Lodging of stems

Resistance to lodging or the capacity of stems to withstand the adverse

effects of rain, wind, weight of the terminal panicles, diseases,
boring insect larva attack, etc is an important quality trait in cereals
against lodging.

Lodged plants lead to loss of the quality and quantity of the harvest.

2.1.3 Leaves

Leaves are side appendages of the plant stemand normally arise from
the buds of plants.Leaves are initiated by the apical meristem. The
main function of leaves is to carry out the processes of
photosynthesis and transpiration.

General characteristics of leaves

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The principal parts of a leaf are the leaf blade (or lamina) and the petiole or
leaf stalk. Some leaves have stipules, which are two small leaves at the base
of the petiole. The leaf is said to be sessile when the petiole is absent.

Leaf venation and modifications

i. Parallel veined leaves

These are leaves of mainly cereal or grass plants having narrow leaves,
which containmany veins of about equal size and length that run parallel and
are joined by inconspicuous veinlets. Growth of such leaves takes place by
elongation near the base.

ii. Net veined leaves

These leaves are mainly of dicotyledonous plants having broad leaves. They
vary in size and shape and the veins are arranged in the form of a net. The
large primary veins are divided into smaller secondary veins.

iii. Leaf modifications

Plants often have leaves modified to perform certain functions other than
photosynthesis and transpiration. Some leaves are modified into
thornsas a protective measure to the plant. Some viny plants like
grapes have leaves modified in the form of tendrilsthat help support
the plant by clinging to poles, a feature also common in most plants
of family Curcubitacea.

2.2. Plant physiology:

Plant physiologyis the study of the plant processes responsible for

thegrowth, development, and production of economic yield by crop
plants.

Crop physiologists focus on whole plants and plant communitiesand

not individual plant parts, organs, or cells because most of the
processes that control yield operate as a whole plant.
Consequently,most crop physiology research is conducted in growth
chambers, greenhouses, or in the field. Plant physiologists investigate
processes responsible for the primary productivity of a crop (e.g.
processes ofphotosynthesis, respiration, light interception, nutrient
utilization, etc); and how the products of these processes are
converted to economic yield (e.g., seed growth, partitioning of
assimilates,sink size, senescence), and developmental processes that define
the length of critical growth stages by controlling flowering and maturation.

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Plant physiology is an integrative science, bringing information from
a variety of disciplines such as soil science, ecology, botany,
statistics, micro meteorology, etc) and how they may relate to crop
management andyield improvement.

END MONDAY

2.2.1. Crop growth requirements

Plant growth factors refer to all those factors that are necessary for a crop to
grow succesfully up to its maturity.Plant growth refers to the progressive
and irreversible development in size and shape of the plant, with
time.Plant growth is usually expressed in the following terms: dry weight,
length and diameter. The principle of crop production is to optimise
all the necessary growth factors requiredfor succesful crop growth
and development.

Crop growth curve

The growth of true seeded crop can be explained through the various
stages or phases that the crop goes through from the seedupto its
maturity.

The main stages of the crop’s growth include the seedling stage, the
vegetative stage, the reproductive stage and maturity stage. The
general pattern of crop growth can be explained by what is known as the
sigmoid curve or the S-shaped growth curve which plots the dry
matter accumulation of the plant (mg, g, kg)in respect to time
(days, weeks, months) of plant growth and development.

The shape of the crop’s growth curve explainsthe growth of the plant as it
progresses with time from planting until maturity.It shows that in the
early stagesduring the seedling stage, there is not much growth
occuring in the plant and hence only little dry matter accumulation
occurs, depicted by some-what flattened curve.

However, later during the vegetative growth stage, there is rapid

growth occuring, accumulating dry matter in the cropwith time. This
arises through more branches and leaves, being formed and added to
the crop as the crop prepares itself for reproduction.

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However, as the plant enters the reproductive phase, there is low rate of
growth experienced by the crop, as accumulation of dry matter slows
down, whichfinally comes to a halt during the maturity phase.

At physiological maturity of the crop, there is no further accumulation

of dry matter and hence the growth curve tends to flatten again then,
just like during the seedling stage.

This has significant influence on thegrowth, development,

productivity and total harvest that a crop could have in relation to the
growing season, date of planting, time for crop management, crop
protection, timing of harvesting and associated post-harvest
technologies.

The growth of a typical seed producing crop could be presented pictorially as

follows:

Maturity stage

Reproductive stage

Dry matterVegetative stage

accumulation
Seedling stage

Time
Fig 1. The S-shaped growth curve of a crop

Fundamental Plant transitions; Field operations linked with Growth

Stages and the associated negative implications
Growth Plant Transition Basic Field Negative
Stage Operations Implications for
Delayed/Not doing
the Field Operation
Seedling During Post seedling (Late) Under utilzation of
stage emergence: Basal applied
Dressing; nutrients;Mineral
Addition of new plant Deficiencies
parts e.g. roots, Thinning; Crowded; Etiolated

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 leaves, nodes. weak Seedlings;
internodes Gapping, Reduced plant
Tiller formation population;
1st Weak plants;
Weeding; Initial infection by
Initial Plant Disease--causing
Protection; pathogens and
Pests;
Hardennin Overgrown
gof seedlings/
seedlings; IncreasedTransplan
ting shock;
Transplanti Crowded, Etiolated,
ng weak plants
Vegetative Rapid increase in Top- Less productive
stage size, length, weight dressing plants;
of plants; (Split??)
Floral initiation 2nd, 3rd Small & Weak
Initiation of Yield weeding; plants
components Repeat
Plant Build up and
Protection; Spread of
disease(s) and
Re-ridging; pests among plants
Earthing Exposure of roots
up and/or tubers;
Greening
Reproducti Flowering Enhanced Reduced seedset
ve stage Anthesis pollination
Pollination ??? Lodging
Grainset Staking Genetically
Grain- Detassellin contaminated seed
developmentDevelop g in maize crop
ment of Yield seed crop
components
Maturity Ceasation in plant Stooking; Increased harvest
stage growth Spiking; losses
Grain hardening
Physiological
maturity (Formation
of Black layer)

Important crop growth factors include:

 Temperature

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 Moisture supply (water)
 Light (radiant energy)
 Air (both atmospheric and soil air)
 Biotic factors (all living organisms)
 Abiotic factors (plant nutrients)

Temperature

Every chemical, physiological and biological process in crop plants is

influenced by temperature. Crops of different species vary quite widely in
their adaptability to temperature, but within the species they are restricted
to narrow limits. All palnts have theiroptimum range of temperature
requirementwithin which they can perform better. For most
agricultural crops the optimum range of temperature for growtjh is
between 15oC and 40oC.

Temperature directly affects the activity of plant enzymes, which in

turn affect the following plant processes: Photosynthesis,
Respiration, Absorption of water, Absorption of nutrients,
Transpiration and Protein sysnthesis.

Plants have optimal temperature ranges for economic yield, this temperature
range can differ within the same plant depending on the plants growth stage.

Warm season crops e.g. tomatoes, sweet potatoes, cotton are more
likely to survive under high temperaturesbut sufferunderlow
temperatures and frost.

Temperate cropse.g. Cabbage, Brussels sproutsare more likely to

survive underlow temperaturesbut suffer underhigh temperatures.

Water loss from the soil (evaporation) and water loss from the
plants (transpiration) tends to be high with increased temperatures
consequently evapotranspiration also increases with increased
temperatures.

The enzymes controlling both photosynthesis and respiration are

temperature dependent. Plant performance will continue to improve as long
as temperature favours a more rapid turnover of photosynthesis compared
to respiration.
Moisture supply (water)

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The growth of a crop is directly proportional to the amount of water
available to the crop.

Crop growth however is usually restricted underboth low moisture

levels and high moisturelevels.

Water is required by plants for the following reasons:

i. Manufacture of carbohydrates (photosysnthesis)

ii. Maintenance of hydration of cells
iii.Translocation of assimilates(carbohydrates)from the sources to
the sinks
iv.Absorbtion of mineral elements

Moisture (water) is normally suplied to crops naturallythrough rain

water orartificially through irrigation.

Light

Light is an important aspect of plant growth because it

affectsphotosynthesis,photoperiodism and phototropism.

 Photoperiodism

This refers to the influence that day length has on the flowering,
tuberization or bulbing of crops.Photoperiod refers to the day
period of light and depending on species, crops performance can be
affected accordingly. With respect to the photoperiod, crops can be
grouped into the following classes:

i. Short day crops

These arecrops that will only flower, form tubers or bulb when the
photoperiod is shorter or equal to 11-12 hours e.g. cotton, soybeans,
sunflower. This means that these crops will require longer nights and hence
shorter days. When short day crops are exposed to days that are longer than
11-12 hours, these crops will just grow vegetatively and will neither flower,
bulb nor form tubers.

ii. Long day crops

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These are crops that will only flower, tuber or bulb when the photoperiod is
longer than 12-13 hours e.g. wheat, oats, lettuce. This means that these
crops will require short night periods and hence longer day periods. When
days are shorter than 12-13 hours, these crops will just grow vegetatively
and will not flower, bulb nor form tubers.

iii. Day neutral crops

These are crops that are not affected by the length of the day, this
means that these crops will flower, bulb or form tubers regardless of the
length of the day e.g. cucumber, irish potatoes, tomato. Some crops will
exhibit different responses to the day length according to cultivars, this
means that one crop may have cultivars that are short day, some that are
long day and still some that are day neutral.

 Photosynthesis

Photosynthesisis the basis of crop production.It is an important

biological phenomenon because it is the source of all primary
energy (glucose)for mankind, livestock.

The aim of crop production aims at maximizing the process of

photosynthesisas the basis for increasing crop yields.

The process of photosynthesis can be represented as a chemical

reactionthrough the following chemical formula:

Sunlight
6CO2 +12H2O C6H12O6 + O2 + 6H2O
Chlorophyll

The plant uses the produced glucose molecules for plant growth and
development through assimilation processto form products that are
harvested for food and fiber.

Limiting factors of photosynthesis

Plants are able to convert about 10% of incoming radiationinto

chemical energy in the form of organic substances but in reality plants
only utilize about 2%of the radiation.

Some of the limiting factors to photosynthesis include:

i. Low light conversion efficiency of most plants leading to wastage

of sunlight.

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 ii. In annual crops, most of the light is wasted becauseonly a
small surface of the field is covered by the leavestherefore
much of the light is lost from the crop.
iii.Moisture stresswhichimposes a limitation on use of sunlightby
affecting CO2 availability by stomatal closure of the leaves.
iv. Shortage of plant nutrients also limits light utilizationbecause
deficiency of minerals like magnesiumreduces chlorophyll
formationthat is needed as a catalyst in photosynthesis .
v. Duration of light to which plants are exposedto.

Duration of photosynthesis and Yield

Photosynthesis is the basis of all crop yields.

Afull season crop has a longer duration of photosynthesis than a

short season crop. Therefore,a full crop season cropis expected to
out yield a short season crop and vice versa.

Length of the growing season

Long maturing cultivars of maize are considered to be full

seasonvarieties. In high rainfall areasfull season maize varieties may be
sown by 15th November and the crop is able to reach physiological maturing
by the 20th of March, after 4 months.

Physiological maturity is the point at which the crop stops

translocation of dry matter into the grains and this is indicated by
the presence of a black layer in seed of most cereal crops.

Duration of the vegetative and the reproductive phases

The contribution of photosynthesis to yield must be considered in terms of

the vegetative and the reproductive phases. During the vegetative
phase, the plant produces additional roots, leaves, stemsand
reproductive organs.e.g. pods.

The reproductive phase begins just after fertilization and this is the
period when photosynthetic products are stored to produce the
economic yield or grain yield.

With respect to the two phases of growth ( Vegetative and Reproductive

phases), two types of crops can be identified viz: determinate and
indeterminate crop species.

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i. Determinate crop species

Theseare crop species in which there is a definite division between

the vegetative and the reproductive phases.Vegetative growth
continues until fertilization takes place.When vegetative growth stops
then reproductive phase starts.

Therefore, any Photosynthetic products produced during the

reproductive phaseare not needed for vegetative growth in
Determinate crop varieties, but such Photosynthetic products are
used to produce the economic yield.

 Due to the existence of definite distinction between the

vegetative and reproductive phases, it is possible to do a one-off
kind of harvesting in Determinate crop varieties.
 If aprolonged vegetative phase occurred, it may lead to:
(a)excessive leaf growth,(b)premature shading of
leavesand(c)yellowing of lower leaves (senescence of old lower
leaves).
 this leads to a reduced period of the reproductive phaseand
finally a reduction in Yield.

ii. Indeterminate crop species

Theseare crop species that have overlapping vegetative and

reproductive periodsunder whichFlowers and reproductive
development may occuron the plant even when newleaves and
stems are being formed e.g. indeterminate Soybeans.

 The flowering period in indeterminate species may extendand

may be at varying stages of crop maturity
 thismakesa one-off time harvestingat once difficult.
 So, more than one harvesting is needed e.g. in Cotton.

Grain filling period

Thisis the period in grain crops when the plant is effectively storing
manufactured photosynthesis products in the grains.
 The period occurs within the reproductive phase.
 the longer the reproductive phase, the longer the grain filling
period

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  Depending on the cultivar and crop species thegrain filling period
mayranges from 28 to 36 days.
 The grain filling duration is referred to as the duration within
which plants are effectively filling the grains with
photosynthetic products
 this will eventually affect the yieldif the grain filling period is
short
 this feature could happen in early maturing, determinate
varieties of crops

The other factor to note is the grain filling rate. This refers to the rate at
which photosynthetic products are being stored and measures the efficiency
of the plant in grain filling.

Both the duration and the rate of grain filling are influenced by:

 Genetic factors
 Environment e.g. rainfall

Physiological maturity

Physiological maturity isdefined as the completion of the reproductive

period and refers to the point at which the plant stops translocating
photosynthetic products to the storage organs e.g. grain.

Once physiological maturity is reached there is no further increase in dry

weight of the storage organs.

Physiological maturity is used to:

i. determine the length of the reproductive period

ii. establish the time to harvest

After physiological maturity, the crop will continue drying until the
right moisture content for harvest is reached.

Determination of physiological maturity

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This can be done by (a)systematic sampling and dry weight analysis.
When no further dry weight increase in grain is observed, the plant
is said to have reached physiological maturity.

The occurrence of the (b)black layeris a barrier that grains develop at

the base of the seed to stop further intake of photosynthetic
products.

This is a simple way of determining physiological maturity.

Day length and reproductive development

The reproductive development of plants is influenced by the relative lengths

of day and night hours.

2.2.4Source-Sink and relationship

Movement of photosynthetic products is usually from a high to low

concentration or from a source to a sink. The source refers to the area
where sugars (photosynthetic products) are being produced and
this is usually the leaves.The source is basically the area of
photosynthesis.The sink refers to the area where the products of
photosynthesis (sugars) are utilized or stored i.e. the roots, storage
organs, non-green stems, old brown leaves, and developing
seeds.Young leaves before they start photosynthesizing are sinks but later
change to become a source as they start photosynthesizing.

Export of assimilates

Export of assimilates is basicallyto the nearest sink from the source

e.g. in a Soybean plant upper leaves export to the upper pods and
lower leaves will export to the lower pods and the roots. This
therefore means that if lower leaves have inadequate light there
will be less food energy to fill the lower pods.

2.2.5Net Assimilation Rate (NAR)

In plants,there is a relationship between plant respiration and

photosynthesis.Respiration which is the breakdown and release of
energyis the opposite ofphotosynthesis which is the building up and
storage of energy.In Respiration, the chemical equation is the
opposite of that for Photosynthesis

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The rate of photosynthesis minus respiration is referred to as the
Net Assimilation Rate (NAR).The NAR relates to how much of the
photosynthetic products will be available for storage and hence the
yield.

Factors affecting the NAR include:

1. Temperature (as it affects respiration)

2. Light (as itaffects photosynthesis)
3. Carbon dioxide (as itaffects photosynthesis)
4. Water (as itaffects photosynthesis)
5. Mineral nutrients (e.g. Magnesium, as itaffects chlorophyll in leaf
formation)
6. Chlorophyll content (as itaffects photosynthesis)
7. Genotype or the genetic makeup of the crop

Dark and light respiration

During dark periods at night, (dark)respiration continuesalthough

photosynthesis is no longer active at night, due to absence of
sunlight.

In addition to dark respiration, light respiration or photorespiration also

takes place.

There are two types of photorespiration i.e. C3 and C4 types of

photorespirationwhich are identified according to the different
pathways of carbon dioxide fixation.

C3 plants

These are crops whose first carbon compound in photosynthesis

consists of athree carbon atom chain.

C3crops are mainly protein producing plants and as such have a high
demand of energy toconvert the carbon compounds toproteins.This
results in a high respiration rate.

Due to this high rate of respiration, C3crops have a very low NAR,
and hence are comparatively lower-yielding than the C4
crops.C3crops include Soybeans,Tobacco, Alfalfa, Carrot, Onion

C4 plants

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These are crops whose first carbon compound in
photosynthesisconsists of a four carbon atom chain.

C4cropsare mainlycarbohydrate producing species e.g. Maize,

Sorghum, Sugar cane and Pearl millet.

These crop specieshave less energydemandand therefore havelow

photorespiration rates.

C4 plants therefore,are more efficient producers because of their

high NAR resulting from the low photorespiration rates.

C4crops such as Pearl millet are more active photosynthetically than C 3

plants, and hence are comparatively higher yielding than the C 3 crops.

Application to crop production

Warm temperatures for C3 crops will increase both thedark and light
respiration and therefore crop producers should avoid exposing such
crops to high temperatures.

Cooler conditions will favour C3 crops e.g. Winter Wheat,but will offer
little advantage to warm season C4crops e.g. Maize, Sorghum and Pearl
millet. All plant cropspecies have cardinal temperatures points which can be
defined as:
a. The minimum required to initiate the process
b. The optimum at which the activity proceeds at the highest rate
c. The maximum at which activity stops
 Crops should be planted in such a way that they are
synchronized with the optimum cardinal temperatures at which
plant activities will proceed at the highest rate.This is one of the
cardinal features about the need for correct Planting date.

Plants are usually disadvantaged with increased temperatures. This is so

because photosynthesis will easily reach its maximum cardinal point
while the rate of respiration is still increasing.

This will result in a massively declined NAR, therefore,crops should be

planted in such a way as to avoid extremely high temperatures.

 C3 types of crops are adversely affected by high

temperaturesthan C4 type of crops and hence C3 plants are not
drought-tolerant compared to C4 crops.

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  Temperate crop species will give optimal growth and NAR values at
200C-250Cwhile Tropical crops have optimal temperatures of
300C-350C.C4 plants have a high saturation point, hence they can
tolerate high light intensities than C3.

Age of leaves, plant population and NAR

Age of leaves

As plant leaves age, there is lowering of the NAR values because of reduced
rates of photosynthesis, but respiration continues as long as the leaf is still
alive. Total photosynthesis in older plants is higher than in young plants, but
total respiration in older plants is also high resulting in reduced NAR not so
different to the young plants.

Plant population

Being the number of plants per unit area of land, aCorrect plant
populationshould be established in a pattern that reduces mutual
shadingamong plantsbut effectively intercepting sunlightto
maximize photosynthesis.

Recommended plant population may be attained by:

i. Adhering to the recommended seed rate

ii. Following the recommended inter-row and intra-row spacing
at planting time
iii. Adhering to the correct depth of sowing
iv. Preventing and/or controlling soil-borne plant and disease
pathogens
v. Planting seed with high germination percentage
vi. Thinning or Gapping

Crop producers should always aim at attaining good spacing pattern

among plantsto enhance(a)photosynthesis; (b)a positive
NARand(c)Recommended plant population.

Recommended plant population arises from adhering to the

recommended (a)seed rate, (b)inter-row and intra-row spacing at
planting time.

This is important to do and achieve in order to:

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 i. Enhance photosynthesis and a positive Net Assimilation
Rate among plantsby minimizing plant competition for
sunlight.
ii. Minimize plant competition for growth space, soil nutrients
and soil moisture
iii. Enhance crop growthand development
iv. Enhance attainment of the genetic yield potential of a crop
variety

The situation where older (lower) leaves reduce the net NAR can be avoided
by removing the crop before lower leaves reach senescence due to age or
mutual shading of leaves. In some crops the older leaves will drop off on
their own hence reducing the effect on the NAR.

Compensation point

This is the point at which the leaf has a NAR value of zero (0).This
basically means that all the photosynthetic products produced are
used for respiration.

Parasitic point

This is the point at which the leaf starts using more assimilates than
it is producing. At the parasitic point, the overall value of the NAR
will be negative.

An understanding of the NAR, C3 and C4 types of plants will determine the

best combination of cultivar, environment and agronomic practices in order
to achieve high yield.

2.3. Aspects of crop production

Crop yields are all ultimately associated with the growth of the
leaves. The yield depends on the rate of addition of dry matter per
unit area of land i.e. on the efficiency of the photosynthetic process
and on the extent of the photosynthetic surface.

2.3.1. Leaf area and leaf area index

The leaf area refers to the measure of the size of the photosynthetic
surface. The leaf area is best described as the Leaf Area Index (LAI)
which is the ratio of the leaf area (LA) to the Ground Area (GA), only
the upper effective areas are considered.

20
 LA
LAI = ,where LA= Leaf Area and GA=Ground Area
GA

LAI=4 (mutual shading); LAI=3 (optimal); LAI=2 (less average); LAI=1 (less
average); LAI=less than 1 (poor coverage)

Optimum LAI

This is the LAI at which the production of dry matter is at its

maximum. Below the optimum LAI dry matter production is less because
not all the sunlight is intercepted and photosynthesis is not at the maximum
rate. Above the optimum LAI dry matter production is less because the lower
leaves are shaded and the net NAR is reduced.

Ceiling LAI

This is the LAI at which mutual shading is incomplete and the net
photosynthesis is zero.

Growth rate Optimum LAI

Ceiling LAI

LAI

Fig. 1: Plant growth vs. Leaf area index

LAI under field conditions

Studies done have shown that the LAI will increase with increased
plant population resulting in a corresponding increase in yield up to
the optimum LAI after which the yield starts reducing, as depicted
below:

Control of the leaf area

21
Leaf area (LA) is a very difficult aspect of crop production to control.
However there are possibilities of managing crops so that the leaf area is
optimized. Optimimum leaf area leads to efficient rates of photosynthesis.

The leaf area may be influenced through the following approaches:

i. Date of planting
Early planted crops will have fully developed vegetative phase resulting in
fully formed leaves with a good leaf area where as the late planted crops will
have a shortened vegetative phase with leaves that are not fully developed
resulting in a reduced LA.

ii. Soil fertility

Nitrogenous fertilizers tend to stimulate leaf growth, however excessive
nitrogen applications may result in excessive leaf growth and shading of
lower leaves which then leads to lodging and reduced yields due to reduced
photosynthetic rates

iii. Seed rates

Recommended seed rates will lead to optimum leaf area this will finally lead
to improved rates of photosynthesis. Reduced seed rates usually results in
reduced leaf area and high seed rates will lead to shading of leaves and
reduced photosynthetic rates.

iv. Cultivar selection

Hybrids will differ with local cultivars with respect to leaf number, leaf length
and leaf width with hybrids having a more developed morphology which
gives them good leaf area and high yields. Within hybrids full season
cultivars will have more leaves as compared to short season cultivars which
tend to have less leaves.

v. Planting pattern
The spacing of crops in the field will have an influence on the leaf area, wide
versus narrow rows will have a different effect on the LA. Wide rows will lead
to increased LA and yield to an optimum level beyond which reduction in
yield occurs due to reduction of the LAI. Narrow rows will lead to a high
density resulting in a very high LA with shading, etiolation and lodging, and
reduced yields.

vi. Plant architecture

A given plant stand may not show morphological differences, but with critical
examinations substantial differences in morphology may be seen. Plant

22
architecture refers to the manner in which leaves are displayed on the plant.
This is important because it will affect the interception of light and finally
yield. Plant architecture features include the following:

1. Height of plants
2. Leaf orientation
3. Number of leaves
4. Leaf length
5. Leaf width
6. Leaf angle of attachment
7. Number of stalks i.e. suckers, tillers

vii. Plant height

Cultivars with big plant architecture (big plants) with broad

spreading leaves will produce good yields because they will produce
a big sink during vegetative growth. Bigger plants will also compete well
with weeds and hence weeds will have less effect on these plants. Plants big
in stature will do well under conditions of wide row spacing, however the
problem may be shading of the lower leaves that may have an effect on the
yield.

Smaller plants with fewer leaves will have lower leaves being more
active in light interception as there is less shading, but with fewer
leaves it means that these that these plants will have a shortened
vegetative phase but yields can be increased by having more plants
per unit area and an extended grain filling period.

viii. Leaf orientation (leaf angle)

This refers to how the leaf is positioned on the plant. The leaf may be
held in an upright position or may be held in a horizontal position. Upright
leaves are considered to be more productive than horizontal leaves.

The upright leaf type may require less space than the horizontal type, and a
higher plant population may be possible. When both are planted at the same
population, the upright leaf type plant should be more efficient in capturing
the sun’s energy than the one with horizontal leaf type.

ix. Better light penetration

Sunlight hitting a leaf can be absorbed, reflected or transmitted.

Horizontally positioned leaves reflects light back to the atmosphere where as

23
vertically positioned reflect more light into the leaf canopy to the advantage
of the lower leaves. Improved light penetration within the canopy will
stimulate photosynthesis throughout the canopy leading to improved tiller
development, thick walled stalks and lodging resistant plants.A more
appropriate leaf orientation will be one where the crop canopies
have vertical leaves in the upper layers with lower leaves becoming
more horizontal.

The light striking an upright leaf will be spread over a large area hence
increasing the intake of this light, leaves of most plant species cannot utilize
light of high intensity as they will easily reach the light saturation point
because light will be more concentrated on a smaller portion then being
spread out.

x. Leaf shape

Leaf shape is a plant characteristic that can be used to improve yields, for
example cotton crops with broad leaves have the potential of raising
fibreyields under good management up the optimum LAI before mutual LAI
before mutual shading of leaves starts.

Narrow leaves will improve light penetration and free air movement within
the canopy which may lead at slightly narrow spacings.

xi. Number of leaves

The number of leaves on a plant will influence the NAR. A plant with too
many leaves will lead to the lower leaves having less light and hence
reduced photosynthesis, but such crops with broad spreading leaves will do
well in standard rows.Plants with fewer leaves will intercept more light and
all the leaves even the lower ones will be photosynthetically active leading to
the entire plant having a high NAR.

Economical yield

This refers to the components of the crop that areharvested as part

of the yield. These harvested parts include grain, tubers, fibres, oil-
producing seeds.

Biological yield

This refers to the total dry matter (biomass) of the above ground
parts of the crop.This includes both the economic yield and the non-
economic yield i.e. the straw, Stover, leaves and other crop residues.

24
Harvest index

This refers to the ratio of the economic yield to the biological yield
and is given by the formular:

Economic yield
Harvest Index (HI) =
Biological yield

Example

Given 100kg to be the weight of grain and strawand the weight of grain as
50kg, Calculate the Harvest Index.

50 Kg
HI =
100 Kg

= 0.5

This can be interpreted as being a high Harvest Index because half

or 50% of the Biological yield is Economical yield.

Local varieties, Landrace varieties, Open-pollinated varieties, Tall

varieties tend to have lowHI of ≤ 0.3, while Hybrids, Dwarf varieties
and Tillering varieties tend to have highHI of ≥ 0.3.

Productivity score

This is the measure of the crop performance obtained by adding the

Economic yield, Biological yield and the Harvest Index. The
productivity score is used to give a single rating on the performance
of a crop. Based on grain yield alone some cultivars, tall ones, may appear
to be very superior, based on Harvest Index only some cultivars, especially
the dwarf ones, may appear to be superior. But based on the productivity
score, the result may be different as the productivity score will include all
components i.e. Harvest Index, Biological Yield and the Economic Yield.

2.3.5. Yield components

 These are parts of a plant that have direct and positive

contribution to increasing yield. In many cereal crops, yield
components could includeNo. of Tillers per plant, No. of
panicles per plant, No. of cobs per plant, No. of rows of seeds
per cob, No. of seeds per row per cob,size of the grain
and weight of grain.

25
All these factors will determine the yield of a grain crop. Potential
yieldmay mostly be affected from vegetative phase to the grain
filling (reproductive) phase. The expected yield (for a Terminal bearer
Cereal) can be calculated from the yield components as follows:

Plants Heads Grains

Yield = Ha
x x x
Plant Head Dry Grain weight harvested

Example: Given that plants/ha= 30,000; Heads/plant= 1; Grains/Head = 200;

Grain weight = 0.2g

Thus Yield = 30,000 x 1x 200 x 0.2g

= 1,200,000g/Ha = 1200Kg/Ha of grain.

Factors influencing yield components

Yield components and then finally the yield is influenced by several factors
some of which include the following:

Factor yield component Associated Yield component

Seed rate
Seed vigour
Seed bed condition
Planting date Number of plants/Ha
Seed germination
Seedling emergence
Planting method
Diseases, insects pests
Cultivar Cobs or Heads or pods/plant
Planting date Grains per head or per Cob or
Nitrogen supply per pod
Water availability Number of Heads/Ha
Diseases, insects pests Grain size
Individual grain weight

Cultivar adaptability

This refers to how best a crop will perform in a given geographical

location, i.e. Agro-ecological Regions I, II, or III in
Zambia .Adaptability is a measure of the reliability of a given
cultivar.

26
The overall yield of any given crop variety is a factor of:

i. Level and Timing of Field management e.g. weeding

ii. Cultivar adaptability
iii.Climatic and environmental conditions
iv. Cultivar response to improved management

UNIT 3.0: CLIMATE AND WEATHER

Important aspects of Zambian climate

The most noticeable feature of the climate in Zambia is the division

into:Dry cool season, Dry warm season and the Wet season.

The dry cool and warm seasons constitute the long dry season ranging from
May to September. The wet season ranges from November to March. April
and October are transitional months,i.e. from the wet season to the dry cool
months and from the dry warm season to the wet season. Of the total annual
rainfall 75% falls in the three months of December, January and February,
out of the 25% remaining a bit more comes in March and less in November.

Probably the other most important feature in the Zambian climate is

the temperature. June and July are the coldest months when there are the
lowest minimum temperatures in Zambia. The highest maximumand
minimum temperatures are reached in October.

Daily maximum temperature may be reached at any time during the period
September and January. Nine hours of sunshine per day is the rule
from May to October; this drops to five hours per day during the
rainy season. At least in all areas of Zambia, there is a marked
tendency for the weather to occur in spells i.e. several cloudy days
followed by days with less cloud, or even for several rainy days to be
followed by days with little or no rain.

Climate change

Climate change is a long-term change in the statistical distribution

of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions
of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions or the
distribution of events around that average (e.g., more or fewer

27
extreme weather events). Climate change may be limited to a
specific region or may occur across the whole Earth.

Global warming

Global warming is a phenomenon in which the earth experiences

slightly high temperatures than normal. Of late there has been
concern about the ever-increasing global temperatures.

UNIT 4.0: ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILIZERS

A FERTILIZER is any organic or inorganic material of natural orof

synthetic origin, (whose mineral constitution could be known or
determined), and can either be added to the soilorsprayed aerially
directly on the leaves of plants or Fertigated through Irrigation
water,to supply some essential nutrients required for efficient and
effective growth and development of plants in order to attain the
required yield.

Organic fertilizers

These are fertilizers that are made from remains of plants and/or
animals e.g. compost manure. Manure refers to the plant and
animals’remains that are in various stages of decomposition while humus is
the end product of decomposition.Manures function to improve the soil
structure, increase soil’s ability to retain and absorb waterneeded for
plant growth, reduce runoff of water and hence reduce soil erosion
through improvement of the soil structure, support soil organisms in
the mineralisation of organic matter and make nutrients available to
the soil in order to be taken up by plant roots.

Advantages of organic fertilizers

 they are cheap
 improve the soil structure
 improve the soil’scation exchange capacity (CEC) among mineral
elements in the soil
 increase the micro-organisms to the soil

28
Disadvantages of organic fertilizers
 they may transfer weed seeds to the field, if not well decomposed
 they may transfer soil-borne diseases to the fields
 they may transfer soil-borne pests such as nematodes and strigaseeds
 they are difficult to handle as they are applied in bulk
 they have a low concentartion of nutrients per unit volume
 large quantities are needed to be applied in any given area

Four Types or forms of Organic fertilizers:

1. Farm yard manure (FYM)

This is the decomposed mixture of dung and urine of livestock with

straw, litter and fodder residues. It is the manure produced by allowing
litter, dung and urine to accumulate in livestock housings for several weeks,
followed by the removal and storage in a heap or trench.

2. Compost manure

In areas where adequate manpower is available, farm refuse such as crop

residues, stubble, weeds etc., can be collected. The accumulated refuse is
spread in alternating 30cm thick layers outside the soil, which should be well
moistened and inoculated with micro-organisms (use anthill soil or soil under
tree shades). The layers are repeated to a highest of 0.5m above the ground
level. After turning and storage for about 6 months, the compost is mature
and ready for application to the field.

Composting is the practice of creating humus-like organic materials

outside of the soil by mixing, piling, or otherwise storing organic materials
under conditions conducive to aerobic decomposition and nutrient
conservation.The decomposition processes and organisms involved are
similar to those involved in the formation of humus in soils.The main
difference is that with composting, decay occurs outside of the soil,
and in such a concentrated fashion as to generate considerable
heat. The finished product, compost, is popular as a mulch, as an ingredient
for potting mixes, and as an organic soil conditioner and slow-release
fertilizer.

Seven Benefits or Advantagesof composting:

29
Although making compost may involve more work and expense than
applying uncomposted organic materials directly to the soil, the process
offers at least seven distinct advantages:

i. Safe storage.

Composting provides a means of effectively and safely storing organic

materials until it is convenient to apply them to soils.

ii. Easier handling.

As a result of CO2 losses and settling, the volume of composted organic

materials decreases by about 30 to 50% during the composting process. The
smaller volume and greater uniformity of the resulting material may greatly
ease the handling and eventual use of the organic matter as a soil
amendment or potting medium.

iii. Nitrogen competition avoidance

For residues with a high initial C/N ratio, proper composting ensures that any
nitrate depression period will occur in the compost pile, not in the soil,
thereby avoiding induced plant nitrogen deficiency.

iv. Nitrogen stabilization

Composting can reduce environmentally damaging nitrate leaching from

organic wastes with very low C/N ratios (such as livestock manure and
sewage sludge). When applied to the soil, composted materials generally
decompose and mineralize much more slowly than uncomposted organic
materials. Composting such low-C/N-ratio materials with high C/Nratio
materials, such as sawdust, wood chips, senescent tree leaves, or municipal
solid waste, provides sufficient carbon for microbes to immobilize the excess
nitrogen and minimize any leaching hazard from the low-C/N materials. It
also provides sufficient nitrogen to speed the decomposition of the high-C/N
materials.

v. Partial sterilization

High temperatures during the thermophilic stage (i.e. plastic covered stage)
in well managed compost piles kill most weed seeds and pathogenic

30
organisms in a matter of a few days. Under less ideal conditions,
temperatures in parts of the pile may not exceed 40 to 50°C, so weeks or
months may be required to achieve the same results.

vi. Detoxification

Most toxic compounds that may be in organic wastes (pesticides, natural

phytotoxic chemicals, etc.) are destroyed by the time the compost is
considered mature and ready to use. Compost is therefore often used as a
method of biological treatment of polluted soils and wastes.

vii. Disease suppression

Some compost can effectively suppress soil borne plant diseases by

encouraging microbial antagonisms. Most success in disease suppression has
occurred when well-cured compost is used as a main component of potting
mixes for greenhouse-grown plants. Some disease suppression has also been
observed with field applications of compost.

3. Green manures

Green manures are crops that are grown specifically to be ploughed

back into the soil in order to add manure and nutrients to the soil.
Seed of the particular green manure crop is sown closely together and then
at about 4-6 weeks of growth it is then ploughed under. The plants should
not be allowed to overgrow as they become too hard to break down when
overgrown. The objective of green manuring is to increase the amount of
manure in the soil in a short time by planting fast growing crops and then
ploughing them under before they set seed. A green manuring crop should
grow quickly, produce enormous herbage (leaves, stems, roots), have a deep
and broad root system for efficient water and nutrient absorbtion, should be
hardy and preferably a legume (legume crops easily breakdown because of
their high nitrogen content which means that they have a low C/N ratio.

A C/N ratio is a short term forcarbon : nitrogen ratioand it indicates

how much nitrogen there is in any given organic matter and is an
indicator of how easy the organic matter will decompose.The lower
the C/N ratio, the higher the amount of nitrogen and the faster the
organic matter will decompose. Since the crop is to be ploughed under,
the seed must be readily available and very cheap. In Zambia the commonly
used green manure crop is Sunhemp (Crotolariajuncea), others are Velvet
beans and Jack beans.

31
4. Liquid manures (Slurry)

These are the drainings from cattle stalls, piggeries and

stables.They have a lot of urine in them and have a high content of
Potassium and Nitrogen in them and these nutrients are in the
readily available forms.However, Phosphorous is absent from urine
but manure quality largely depends on the type and management of
livestock and on any dilution with rain or washing water. The nitrogen is in
urea form hence quickly transformed into ammonia which is easily volatilized
if not well taken care of.Liquid manure has low transport and storage costs
and is normally incorporated into the soil before the planting of crops is
done.

Application of organic fertilizers

All organic manures (except for liquid manures) should be applied well
in advance to the soil before sowing in order to obtain complete
decomposition and mineralization before planting. Manures should
be applied about 4 – 6 weeks before planting. Never apply fresh
manure to already growing crops as there is scorching of the crop by the
fresh manure, there is also competition for soil nitrogen by the soil micro-
organisms that are trying to breakdown the fresh manures which results in
the yellowing of the crop as the crop is deprived of the vital soil nitrogen (to
avoid yellowing of the crop nitrogen fertilizers may be applied to the field).

When manure is applied to the field it should be evenly broadcasted and

then incorporated by ploughing, this helps to quicken decomposition and
reduce volatilization.

The ploughing or discing in of manure should be done within a day. The

amounts of manure normally applied ranges from 20 to 40
tonnes/ha.However, the amounts of nutrients supplied to crops from
organic fertilizers differs depending on the type of manure and the
level of management that was employed for the animals in the case
of farm yard manure.

INORGANIC FERTILIZERS or INDUSTRIAL FERTILIZERS

These are fertilizers that are made from inorganic materials e.g.
Compound D, Urea, Ammonium nitrate, etc. These fertilizers are also
referred to as commercial fertilizers because they are normally
commercially produced for sell to farmers. There is a wide range of
fertilizers on the market now and some can be tailored specifically to meet
32
the specific needs of a given soil deficiencies for specific crops. Commercial
fertilizers in essence are inorganic fertilizers and are also referred to as
industrial fertilizers.
The term fertilizer material is normally used to refer to any material that can
be used in the manufacture of fertilizers or cam be used directly as a
fertilizer.
Advantages of inorganic ferilizers
 contain specific nutrient quantities
 contain high amounts of nutrients
 convenient to handle
 convenient to store
 quick uptake by plants

Disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers

 they are expensive
 some may make the soils acidic
 do not improve the soil structure
 need good storage structures.

TYPES OF OR FORMS OF INORGANIC FERTILIZERS

1. Straight fertilizers:

(a) Single or straight fertilizers

These are fertilizers that supply only one major plant nutrient and these
can either be Nitrogen, Phosphorus or Potassium.

i. Nitrogenous fertilizers
These are fertilizers that will supply mainly the nutrient Nitrogen as the
major nutrient and the common ones are Calcium Ammonium Nitrate-CAN
(26%N), Ammonium Nitrate (34%N), Urea (46%N) and Sulphate of ammonia
(21%N).

ii. Phosphate fertilizers

These are fertilizers that will mainly supply Phosphorus as the main
nutrient in the form of phosphate and the common ones are: Single super
phosphate (19%P) and Tripple super phosphate (44%P).

iii. Potassic fertilizers

These are fertilizers that are manuffactured to supply Potassium as the
major nutrient and the common ones are: Potassium chloride (60K) also

33
known as Muriate of potash and Potassium sulphate (50%K) also known as
Sulphate of potash.

It may be necessary to do SPLIT APPLICATION OF SUCH STRAIGHT

FERTILIZERS e.g. 500 kg applied in separate split doses e.g. 1st dose:
200kg; 2nd dose: 200 kg; 3rd dose: 100kg, having the total quantity of
500kg remaining un changed.

2. Compound fertilizers

These fertilizers contain all the three major plant elements N, P and K
and also saves more labour when applying because the three major plant
nutrients will be applied in one dossage to the plants.
Advantages of compound fertilizers are that the mixture is usually stable i.e.
does not easily cake when exposed to slight moisture.

Disadvantages of compound fertilizers are that the fertilizers maybe

unsuitable for some soils which may be having the other major plant
nutrients and the other disadvantage is that they are more expensive than
straight fertilizers because it is more costly to manufacture compound
fertilizers than straight fertilizers.

i. Complete compound fertilizers (compound fertilizers)

These are fertilizers that will supply all three major plant nutrients NPK e.g.

ii. Incomplete compound fertilizers

These are fertilizers that will supply only two of the major plant
nutrients e.g Nitrogen and phosphorus only or Nitrogen and potassium or
Calcium and Phosphorus only. The common incomplete compound fertilizer
is Diammonium phosphate (18%N,46%P) and Monocalcium phosphate( %C,
%P).

Table highlighting some of the fertilizers and theirnutritional

contents:
Fertilizer %N % P2O5 % K2O %S % %
Calcium B
Compound D 10 20 10 6
Compound A 2 18 15
Compound V 4 18 15 10 1
Compound C 6 18 12 10 1
Compound D 10 20 10 6

34
Compound X 20 10 5 10
Compound R 20 20 10
Veg Mix 5 24 10 10
Veg Mix A 10 20 10
Veg Mix B 12 12 12
Super Veg 19 19 19
Feed
Veg Top 24 10 0 24
Veg Top 32 21 0 32
Tomato 10 23 15.7
Basal
Cabbage 12.3 6.8 20.5
Basal
MAP-Tech 12 26
Calcium 15.5 19
Nitrate
CAN 27
Urea 46

3. Micro-nutrient carriers
These are fertilizers that will supply only minor or trace elements e.g.
Solubor, which supplies Boron.
4. Liquid fertilizers
These are fertilizers that are supplied in liquid form e.g Aqua-ammonia;
Foliarfert.
5. Bulk or blended fertilizers
These are fertilizers that are sold as physically mixed fertilizers after being
manufactured separately. Different fertilizers are mechanically mixed
(blended) and are then refered to as blended fertilizers.
6. Granular fertilizers
These are fertilizers that are present in small stable granules of uniform size
e.g Compound D, Urea. These granules make handling easy and reduces on
dusts.
7. Powder fertilizers
These are fertilizers that are supplied in powder form e.g. Lime; Solubor
8. Pellets
This is a form in which a fertilizer is made into pellts, are stable
presentations and slightly larger than granules.

35
FOUR IMPORTANT FERTILIZER TERMS INCLUDE:
i. Fertilizer grade
Fertilizer grade refers to the guaranteed minimum analysis in percentage of
the major nutrient elements contained in a given fertilizer. In short fertilizer
grade indicates the percentages of the nutrients in a given fertilizer
ii. Fertilizer ratio
Fertilizer ratio refers to the grade of a fertilizer expressed in terms of the
lowest common denominator. e.g. the fertilizer ratio of compound D is 1: 2: 1

iii. Low analysis fertilizers

Fertilizers are refered to as low analysis fertilizers when the amount of
available nutrients is below 30% e.g. Calcium ammonium nitrate26% N.
These fertilizers are normally expensive per nutrient unit.

iv. High analysis fertilizers

Fertilizers are refered to as high analysis fertilizers when tha amount of
available nutrients is 30% or more e.g. Urea 46% N.

Application of inorganic fertilizers

Balanced fertilization is important as it results in good crop performance

considering that other factors are allowing e.g other nutrients, water,
temperatures, because the response of crops to nutrients is affected by the
supply of other nutrients and other growth factors.

Liebegs law of the minimum

This law states that the growth factor in the least amount will limit the
growth of the crop.
This means that the benefits of fertilizer applications will only be achieved
when all other growth factors are adequate. These other factors include:
 high yielding cultivar
 correct plant density
 adequate water
 good soils
 disease free fields and plants
 optimum weather
 good land preparation
Fertilizer Application time
Fertilizers should only be applied when the need is high. The demand for
nutrients will increase between 7 to 21 days after seedling emergence.

36
Fertlizers applied within this period should be available to crops for 75 to 90
days oid growth. After this period a lot of nutrients needed are translocated
from other parts of the plant (that is why older leaves of most crops start
turning yellow as they mature).Time of applicatuion is dependent on 3
factors including:
i. Soil condition
Avoid applying fertilizers in soils that are too dry or too wet. Always aplly
under moist soil conditions.

ii. Climate
The most important aspact under climate is the rainfall, avoid aplications
when heavy rains are expected or do not apply the whole dosage in areas
where heavy rain are a norm, but do split application.

iii. Type of nutrient to be supplied

Certain nutrients e.g Phosphorus will need to be applied much earlier than
nitrogenous fertilizers as they tend to take long to be available to crops.

Basal or starter application

This is the application of fertilizer done before, at planting or 1
week after emergence. This aplication aims at supplying 30-40% of
the total nitrogen required and 100% of the phosphorus and
potassium required by the crop.

Top dressing
This is the applicatuon of fertilizer done to already growing crops i.e.
after the crop has been growing for some time. This application aims at
supplying 60%-70% of the nitrogen balance to the crop.
This application is usually done at 4-8 weeks of crop’sgrowth after
planting. Most of this nitrogen applied at this stage is for
reproduction.

Fertilizer placement
An important item in the efficient use of fertilizer is that of
placement in relation to the plant. Fertilizer placement is important
for three reasons:
i. Efficient utilization of nutrients

37
Fertilizers should be placed where they can be easily intercepted and quickly
taken up by plant roots. Place the ferilizer where they can be easily utilized
from emergence to maturity.

ii. Prevention of salt injury to the seedling

Soluble nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other salts may be harmful if
placed close to the seed, seedling or plants. An important rule is that there
should be some free soil between the seed and the fertilizer.

iii. Convenience to the grower

Always use placement methods that will save labour, speed and time. Do not
use methods that are complecated as it may be labour involving, very slow
and time wasting.

Methods of ferilizer application

Inorganic fertilizers can be applied in several ways depending on type of
fertilizer and convenience.

1. Banding or side dressing of Solid fertilizers

Solid fertilizers can be applied by what is known as banding or side dressing.
This is the applying of fertilizer in one or two spots beside the plant or the
seed.

FourForms of banding or side dressing include:

i. Spot application
This is the placement of fertilizer on one spot to the side of the plant or seed,
the advantage with this method is that the fertilizer is placed closer to the
plant for efficient absorbtion of nutrients.
ii. Strip application
This is the applying of fertilizer in strips (discontinous lines) besides the
plants. This is common under top dressing. Strip application may be single
strip application if there is just one strip besides the row of plants and may
be referred to as double strips if two strips are applied besides one row.
Although in most cases it is single strip that is normally practiced.

iii. Ring application

This is the applying of fertilizer in a circle arround the plant, this is commonly
practices in fruit trees especially when they are sizably grown so that the
fertilizer is spread to all the sides of the elongating roots.

38
 iv. Drilling
This is the applying of fertilizer in a continous row along the row of crops.
This is suitable for top dressing in row crops like maize, sorghum. This
method my not be suitable for non-row crops like broadcasted millet.

2. Broadcastingof Solid fertilizers

This is where ferilizer is scattered randomly in the field and may or may not
be incorporated into the soil. This method is suitable for small grained crops
e.g. millet, rice, wheat. However, Broadcasting of fertilizer is normally
descouraged as it leads to wastage of fertilizer and there is a tendency to
eventually fertilize weeds aswell because the fertilizer may not fall near the
crop but near weeds.

Liquid fertilizers
These are fertilizers that are formulated in liquid form and can be applied in
the following ways:

i. Foliar spray
This is the applying of fertilizers of liquid form directly on to the leaves of the
crops. This method is suitable for supplying micro-nutrients and for
correcting micro-nutrient deficiencies. This is because most micro-nutrients
are normally absorbed through the leaf stomata as opposed to some major
plant nutrients that need to be part of the soil solution before they are
absorbed by plant roots.

ii. Fertigation
This is the applying of fertilizers through irrigation water. This mehod is
suitable for large fields of closely grown crops that are under artificial
irrigation. The right quantity of the fertilizer is first dissloved in the irrigation
water and then pumped out to the field together with the irrigation water.
The advantage with this method is that the fertilizer uptake by plants is very
high as the fertilizer is already in a dissolved state, but there may be dangers
of leaching in some cases especially for nitrate fertilizers which are highly
soluble.

Fertilizer recommendations

Fertilizer recommnedatios are continously changing due to changing needs

and technology.The appropriate recommendation (quantity) of fertililizer to

39
apply can only be done after the soil analysis has been done so that the
amount of nutrients in the soil is known and the lacking ones are known.The
following seven guides are however normally used in fertilizer
recommnedations:

i. Kind of crop to be grown

Crops are different with respect to the value associated with the crop as well
as the use of nutrients by each particular crop. Some crops are of high value
as compared to others at the same time some crops are heavy feeders of
nutrients as compared to others. Therefore the amount of fertilizer to use
will vary according to:

ii. Economic value of the crop

crops of high economic value can be fertlized more as they are able to return
the cost of fertilizers than crops of low value e.g cassava. That is why crops
like cassava, sorghum which are of low value are usually grown by resource
poor farmers who can not afford the purchase of inorganic fertilizers.

iii. Nutrient removal

Different crops have different demands for nutrients, high nutrient
demanding crops like maize, cotton need to be well fertilized than less
demanding crops like cassava, sorghum. Crops that have less demand on
nutrients like cassava can still do well on marginal (less fertile) lands and will
therefore need less fertilization.

iv. Chemical status of the soil

With respect to the nutrient status of the soil, it referrs to the available
nutrients in the soil as well as the total nutrients in the soil, that is why it is
very important to carry out a soil fertility analysis so that these two aspects
of the soil are known.
v. Available nutrients
Thisrefers to what type of nutrients are available in the soil. This can only be
determined after carrying out tests, if thse soils lack phosphorus, then
phosoahate fertilizers need to be recommended.

vi. Total nutrients

This refers to the amount of nutrients available in the soil with respect to te
required amounts. If the amounts are less than the recommended, then the
shortfall has to be aplied so as to meet the recommended levels.

40
 vii. Physical state of the soil

Soil texture
Large single applications should be avoided on sandy soils as most of the
fertilizer will easily get leached, in these soils it is normally recommended to
apply split applications of the dosage e.g. from a recommendation of 300Kg,
instead of applying the entire quantity at once the total amount can be split
into two amounts like 150Kg and then applied as two separate applications.
In soils that are able to retain nuttrients e.g. good loam soils, single
applications can be done as there is assurance that the soil is going to retain
teh applied nutrients.

Organic matter content

Fertilizer applications can be reduced in soils that have a high amount of
organic matter as these soils are likey to be fertile. Where large amounts of
organic fertilizers (manures) are normally applied the amounts of inorganic
fertilizers to apply is normally reduced as the organic fertilizer will add some
nutrients to the soil which will complement the inorganic fertilizers.

Moisture content
Inthe soils that are likely to be water logged, avoid heavy aplications
ofnitrate fertilizers as these are easily denitrified into the gaseous form.When
the soils are too dry, avoid fertilizer applications, because this usually results
in volatilization of fertilizers especially Ammnoium fertilizers.

5.0 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF ZAMBIA

Zambia is divided into three main Agro-ecological regions which are

defined on the basis of climatic characteristics of which rainfallis the
dominant factor. However, the agro-ecological sub-zones were
established using the following parameters:

i. Amount of rain fall

ii. Length of the growing season
iii.Occurrence of drought in rainy season
iv. Amount of sunshine in the rainy season (Temperature)
v. Occurrence of frost in the dry season

41
 vi. Soil types
vii. Vegetation

5.1 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL Region I

The region covers major valleys such as Gwembe, Lunsemfwaand the

Luangwa valleys. Agro-ecological Region 1 lies between 300-900m above
the sea level. The region also includes southern parts of western and
southern provinceswith elevations between 900m-1200m.

Rainfall

The average rainfall is low and does not exceed 800mm. Rainfall is not
well distributed and the length of growing season varies from 80-120
days.It is the shortest growing season and it contains as many as 10
days dry period of less than 30 mm rainfallhence making it the driest
and most prone to drought. In this region, climate resilient crop
cultivars which are:

i. Early maturing
ii. Drought tolerant
iii. High temperature tolerant
iv. High growth rate cultivars, are a necessity

Temperature

The region is characterised by relatively high temperatures. The mean daily

temperature vary from 200C-250C though the mean could be as high as
the cold season (during the growing season).

During the cold season mild to severe frost may be expected in the
southern parts of the southern parts of western and southern provinces.

Soils

The following soil types can be distinguished in the region:

 Loamy and clay soils with coarse to fine loam top soils
 The soils are slightly acid to alkaline with minor fertility limitations
besides have potential agricultural production. These soils can be
found in the Gwembe valley, Chiawa near Chirundu and Luangwa in
Lusaka province.
 Reddish course sandy soils either medium to very strong acidity found
in the pan dambo areas

42
  The soils developed from Kalahari sands (have major crop production
limitations due toAluminum toxicity) and have low nutrient
reserve.
 Poorly drained sandy soils occurring on the western side of
Zambezi River in Western Province
 Soils occur in large valley dambos and grassland hence soils are acidic
and generally have low fertility. There are poorly drained soils in
southern province with a clay texture and a high pH (poor workability)

Vegetation

The region is characterised by mopane woodland the acacia woodland and

the deciduous thickets, mopane is an open deciduous canopy found in the
hot river valley of Luangwa, Kafue and Zambezi

5.2AGRO-ECOLOGICAL Region II

The region covers the central part of Zambia extending from east to
west. The region is divided into sub-region IIa (sand veld plateau of
Central, Lusaka, Southern provinces) and sub-region IIb (Kalahari
sand plateau, Zambezi flood plains in Western province) the general
elevation is between 900-1300m above sea level.

Rainfall

The region receives medium rainfallof 800 – 1,000mm, is well

distributed with a length of the growing season ranging from 100-
140days. The growing season may contain one to three 10 dry periodsof
less than 30 mm rainfall which can significantly reduce crop yields especially
on sandy soils.

Hence, climate resilient Early to Medium maturity crop varieties would

be needed.

Temperature

Mean daily temperature during the growing season range from 230C-250C
(with mean max temp of 320C) and the mean temp. below 100C in July.

Soils

Soils have slight to severe chemical and physical limitations to crop

production (low water holding capacity, shallow rooting depth, low

43
organic matter, low nutrient reserve, acidity, capping and coarse
textured top soils which increase the erosion hazard).

Moderately clay to loamy soils with medium to strong acidity; soils have low
nutrient reserves and have low water holding capacity

Slightly leached soils, red to reddish in colour with slight to medium acidity

Soils are heavily textured making them difficult to work.

Coarse sandy loam in large valley dambos with medium to strong acidity

Soils are imperfectly to very poorly drained (with major limitations to crop
production due to their wetness)

Sandy soils on Kalahari sand

Soils are reddish to yellowish with medium to strong acidity (limitations

include coarse textured top soils, low water holding capacity and low nutrient
reserves).

Vegetation

It is dominated by Miombo woodland which consists of Brachystegia and

Isoberlina (fall in Eastern, Southern, Central, Lusaka provinces under region
II). Munga woodlands dominated by species of Acacia terminalia (fall in
Southern, Eastern, and Central provinces). The main agricultural areas
covered by the aforesaid vegetation. Western province is covered by
Kalahari woodland and Southern part of Western province including Kalomo
district Baikace (teak dry deciduous forest)

5.3. AGRO-ECOLOGICAL Region III

The covers North Western; Copperbelt;Luapula; Northern; and

Muchingaprovinces and some parts of Serenje and Mkushi districts
of Central Province.The region is part of the degraded Central African
plateau with attitudes ranging from 1100 to 1700 m above sea level.

Rainfall

The mean annual rainfall is high exceeding 1000mm. The length of the
growing season varies from 120-150 days.Although rainfall is more
than adequate the production of crops may be limited by fewer
numbers of sunshine hours.Hence, climate resilient long maturing
crop cultivars are needed.

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Temperature

The mean monthly temperature during the growing season varies from 160C
to 20oC. The mean temperature in the cold season June/July averages about
180c with the exception of a few isolated areas which experience critical frost
problems averaging 17 days per year.

Soils

The region consists of highly weathered and leached soils that are
characterized by low pH of less than 4.5 and very low reserves of
primary minerals. Soils are usually deficient in phosphorus, nitrogen, and
many other major plant nutrients and source micro nutrients. Though soils
have serious chemical limitations to plant growth the physical properties are
favourable (micro structural stability, deep well drained soils and high soil
biological activity).

Red to brown clayey to loamy soils with very strong acidity; strong leached
and most widespread. Shallow and gravel soils occurring in rolling to hilly
areas; have limited depth hence are not suited to large scale cultivation.
Clayey soils red in colour and moderately to strongly leached; soils have
fewer limitations to crop production than other soils.

Poorly to very drained flood plain soils of variable texture and acidity, Coarse
sandy soils with very strong acidity found in pan dambos on Kalahari sands.
Soils of the rift valley with variable textures include slightly acidic sandy soils
and the dark alkaline cracking clays.

Vegetation

The region is characterized by Miombo and mixture of Chipya and dry ever
green forest. The Miombo woodland with an open or lightly closed canopy of
semi deciduous trees 15-21m high species include Brachystegia,
Julberinardia and Isoberlina) and also Uapace, Kirkana, Pterocarpusangolesis
(Mukwa) and Parinaricuratelifilia

UNIT 6.0: CROPPING SYSTEMS OF ZAMBIA

A cropping system mainly refers to the way a crop is grown,

arrangement in the field and the frequency of productuion.Different
cropping systems and practices are used in the production of crops
depending on location , preference, skill and financial capacity. The following

45
are some ofthe common cropping systems practiced in Zambia: Crop
rotation, Monoculture, Shifting Cultivation, Intercropping and
Agroforestry.

A. Shifting cultivation

This system is also known as Chitemene system in Zambia, Slash and

burn, Migratory cultivation or Swissden cultivation.

This is a system where:

(i)tree branches are cut;(ii)bundled;
(iii)left to dry and then (iv)set on fire. After burning,
(v)cultivation is done on the cleared portion and the
(vi)ashes are incorporated into the soil by cultivation.

Characteristics of Chitemene system

It is usually(i)practiced in areas where there is no human population

pressurebecause the demand for land is not so much in these areas,(ii)the
land is cropped for 2-4 seasons or years and
(iii)then abandoned to go and clear another field
(iv)Crops usually grown are:cassava, finger millet, sorghum, because
these crops have less demand on inputs like inorganic fertilizers and can still
give a good crop on marginal land.
(v)No commercial fertilizers are used
(vi)fertility depends on the burnt vegetationespecially potash from the
ash left behind by burning.
(vii)The area under cultivation normally has no specific shape,
although the fields are usually circular, because the
(viii)cultivation is done on the area where the vegetative matter
was piled

Advantages of shifting cultivation

(i)The ash left after burning has a high content of Potassium which
can be used as a nutrient, hence there is no need to purchase the
expensive inorganic fertilizers,
(ii)The ash helps to neutralize the soil acidity
(iii)No technical knowhow is needed to carry out this practice, the
practices involved in the production of the crops are not too advanced
and the skills are just passed on from father to son without formal

46
training.

Disadvantages of shifting cultivation

i. Shifting cultivation easily leads to land degradation through the

continued cutting down of trees.

ii. Only small portions are cultivated under this system but
usually a larger area of trees is cut down.

iii. Low yields are characteristic of this system as there are no

inorganic inputs applied and the fields cultivated are normally
smaller.
iv. There is no building of permanent structures e.g. houses, as
these fields are used as temporary fields before being abandoned.
v. Useful micro-organisms end up being destroyed from the
heat generated during the burning of the vegetation.

vi. Land is not fully utilized as a smaller portion is usually

cultivated from a bigger portion of trees cleared.
vii. It leads to deforestation of forests, this may in most cases lead
to the loss of good indigenous forest tree resources.

B. Mono-cropping

Mono-cropping or Monocultureis the cultivation of the same crop on

the same piece of land year (season) after year (season). Previously it
had been very difficult to practice monoculture on a sustained basis because
of the many problems associated with this system, but now monoculture
has been made possible because of the following reasons:

(i) Availability of a wide range of chemicals that can be used to

control insect pests, weeds and crop diseases. These easily build
up under a monoculture system.
(ii) Availability of inputs like inorganic fertilizers that can be used
to improve soil fertility even when a crop that has demand on
nutrients is being grown continuously.
(iii) Improved tillage methods that can be used to incorporate
large quantities of organic matter into the soil, this helps to

47
 improve the soil fertility making it easy to grow the same crop on a
sustained basis.

Benefits (Advantages) of monoculture

i. The farmer can specialize in a crop that pays most than being
forced to grow other non-profitable crops in the name of crop
rotation.
ii. It allows the farmer to grow the crop that best suits the land
and the region e.g. paddy rice in flooded regions.
iii. Soil fertility problems can be easily adjusted to suit one
crop e.g. the pH of the soil can only be adjusted once to suit one
particular crop.
iv. It offers great flexibility in planning the cropping
programmei.e. it is easier to plan for one crop than for several
crops which may prove to be challenging.
Disadvantages of monoculture
i. There is a buildup of pests if routine management practices
are not carried out properly i.e. proper control of weeds, disease
and insect pests.
ii. More skill is required to manage a monoculture system on a
sustained basis because of the many external interventions that
are required to be implemented, like pest control measures.
iii. Soil Erosion can easily render the soil infertile if a crop that
does not provide a good soil cover is used e.g. in a case where an
upright crop like maize is continuously grown.
iv. It requires more capital for the purchase of inputs like agro-
chemicals, fertilizers etc. that are normally associated with this
system.

C. Crop rotation

This is the practice of growing different crops, one at a time, in a

definite sequence, on the same piece, of land year after year.Several
crops can be grown on different portions of a larger field and then rotated
from one field to the other, or a different crop can be grown each season
with a fallow season inbetween.

Benefits of crop rotation

48
 i. Crop rotation Increases the capability of the soil to sustain
crop productionthrough improved soil fertility especially in a case
where a legume has been incorporated in the system.
ii. It slows down disease and insect pest build-up on the
soilbecause different crops are attacked by different diseases and
insect pests, therefore through rotation these pests are minimized.
iii. It raises organic matter content of the soil especially in a case
where a crop that leaves a lot of herbage behind is included.
iv. It enhances soil and water conservationas some crops have
less demand for water as compared to others. Some crops also have
good soil binding properties especially those that have large root
masses.
v. It slows down the build-up of the weed seed bank in the
soilwhen crops that are easy to weed are rotated with crops that
are difficult to weed. This ensures that weeds that will survive with a
crop that is difficult to weed e.g. groundnuts will be easily controlled
when a crop that is easy to weed e.g. maize is grown.

(Seven)Principles for crop rotation design

i. Crops of the same family should not follow each other in a
rotationas these are normally attacked by the same pests (weeds,
insect pests and diseases).
ii. Shallow rooted crops should alternate with deep rooted
cropsin order to ensure that nutrients from the soil are utilized from
different layers of the soil profiles.
iii. A legume crop should always be included in a
rotationbecause legume crops fix nitrogen in the soil and hence
help to improve soil fertility.
iv. A crop that is a heavy user of nutrients should always be
started first on virgin land in a rotation e.g. maize, cotton or
after a fallow so that they can benefit from the built up nutrients.
v. Crops with less demand on nutrients should be put at the
end of a rotation e.g. cassava, sorghum, pearl millet etcbecause
these crops can easily survive on marginal (less) soil fertility.
vi. A fallow should be included in a rotation. Fallowing of land
refers to the resting (no growing of crops) of land in order for it to
regenerate itself in terms of soil fertility.This helps to break hault
the life cycle of the pest or disease-causing pathogen.

49
 vii. Crops that are easy to weed (row crops like maize) should
alternate with those that are difficult to weed like
groundnuts. This is in order to ensure good complete control of
weeds.

D. Inter-cropping

This is the growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same

field in one season.Intercropping is usually practiced by peasant
farmers under the rural setup. There are various ways of intercropping
but some of the commonly employed ones include the following:

i. Mixed intercropping
Under this system, two or more crops are grown on the same field in
an irregular mannerwith no specific planting pattern. This is the
common methods under the village set up where the idea isto maximize land
use of land and ensure food security.

ii. Row intercropping

This is where two crops are grown on the same field in alternate
rows, one crop in a row and another crop in another row.This is a more
organized way of intercropping and makes management relatively easy.

iii. Strip intercropping

Strip intercropping is a way of intercropping where the field is divided into
narrow strips and then usually two crops are grown alternately in
these strips.

iv. Relay intercropping

This is a system where a maturing annual crop is interplanted with
seedlings or seeds of the following crop.
Under this system there will be times when:
(i) there will only be one crop in the field,
(ii)a time when there will be two crops in the field (intercropped) and
(iii)again a time when there will be only one crop in the field.
v. Interplanting
This is where long term annual or biennial crops are interplanted
with short term annual crops.

Five Advantages of intercropping

50
 i. There is food security from crop failure as a harvest is
guaranteed if one crop fails, another crop may still do well and a
harvest acquired.
ii. There is a variety of food supply, including various crops in one
field ensuring a variety in food supply than where one crop is
grown.
iii. The field is used to the maximum. This results from the fact that
there is complete coverage of the field by the various crops being
grown on one field.
iv. The various crops grown provide good soil cover. In case
where crops like pumpkins are incorporated in an intercrop there is
good cover of the soil hence protecting the soil from soil erosion.
v. Labour and time demand is reduced since such routine
management practices like weeding are done at once. When
weeding is being done it will be done on all the crops in the field
other than where separate fields are being used for separate crops.

Two Disadvantages of intercropping

i. Mechanisation of field operations is difficultbecause different

crops require different machinery for land preparation, spraying and
harvesting.
ii. Use of chemicals is difficult because different crops react
differently to chemicals. In a case where maize is intercropped with
field beans, spraying of chemicals e.g. herbicides to kill broad-leafed
weeds may lead to the killing of field beans which is a broad-leafed
plant.
Note: The above disadvantages explain why there is no or rare
intercropping in highly mechanized farms where there is a heavy use of
machinery and agro-chemicals like herbicides for weed control.

Agroforestry
Agroforestry is a cropping system that involves a close association of
tree shrubs with crops, animals and/or pasture.Agroforestry may
involve the combination of practices in the same place at the same
time (intercropping) or in the same place at different times
(rotational).Trees to be used in Agroforestry should have the
following characteristics:

 Have an open canopy, these plants should not shade the crops

51
 Should be a legume for the benefit of adding nitrogen to the soils
 Should have shallow and few lateral roots to avoid competition
with crops for growth factors.
 Have resistance to drought and flooding, they should not easily
die as a result of drought and flooding.
Species of common trees used in Agroforestry:Leucaenaleucocephala;
Sesbaniasesban; Acacia albida

Cropping systems used in agroforestry include the following:

1.Alley cropping or hedge row cropping.

This is a system where dense hedges of multipurpose (usually leguminous)

trees are grown in rows between wider strips of annual crops. The hedges
are prunned occasionally to provide mulch and organic matter. The main aim
in alley cropping is to improve yields by adding nutrients from the organic
matter and nitrogen fixation.

2.Multistorey cropping.

This is where closely spaced trees are intercropped with annual crops.
The trees that are intercropped with annual crops are referred to as the
upper storey and the annual crops as the under storey. This system employs
shade tolerant crops e.g. Tea, pineapples.

3.Contour vegetation strip.

This system is mainly employed on slopes where rows of trees are

interspaced with wider strips of crops. The main aim in this system is to
control soil erosion.

Benefits of Agroforestry:

i. Conservation of soil water through mulching and soil cover

ii. Prevention of soil erosion
iii. Increased yields of useful products
iv. Increased soil fertility
v. Source of forage to domestic animals

52
vi. Cheap supply of fuel-wood

Disadvantages of Agroforestry
i. Needs some skill to carry out
ii. Trees may harbour pests and diseases
iii. Trees may compete with crops if not well spaced

Multiple cropping
This is a cropping system where two or three crops are grown at different
times throughout the year e.g. in summer and in winter. This system is quite
involving in that there is no resting, but ensures a steady supply of foodstuffs
throughout the year.

Organic farming

Organic production is a systems approach. Although many aspects of

vegetable production remain the same in both “organic” and “non-organic”
or “conventional” systems, there are differences. “Organic” usually refers to
a crop management system that promotes biodiversity, biological cycles,
and soil biological activity. Organic production concentrates on natural
processes and how to manage them. Other materials and products are
additions to, not replacements for, management. It is a total approach. One
cannot convert to organic production by substituting an “organic” insecticide
or adding manure. The system will fail if this approach is taken.
An organic system takes time to develop. It may be achieved in stages, for
example by starting with organic soil amendments and other soil improving
procedures. Then, try biological control of pests, some companion plants,
etc. Eventually, the entire system will be changed. It will take YEARS to
convert to a healthy organic system.

Soil Fertility management

Organic production relies on fertile, biologically active soil. Fertile soil has a
combination of organic matter, acceptable pH, and a balance of plant
nutrients suitable for healthy plant growth. Organic matter is maintained and
biological activity is promoted by regular additions of organic material to the
soil. Examples of organic material include compost,manure and cover crops.
Proper pH is maintained by applying agricultural lime when necessary based
on soil test recommendations. A balance of nutrients in adequate supply is
maintained by applying nutrient-rich natural materials to supplement
nutrients supplied by soil minerals and organic matter. Some organic
fertilizer materials are purchased as processed inputs (i.e. fish emulsions);

53
while others may be produced on-farm (for example a legume green manure
crop).

Nitrogen (N)
In organic production, nitrogen is supplied by soil organic matter and
additions of high-nitrogen organic materials to the soil. Soil organic matter
can supply roughly 20 lb. nitrogen annually for each 1% soil organic matter.
High-nitrogen organic materials such as composted manure, legume green
manure crops, and soybean meal release additional nitrogen as they
decompose in the soil over a period of months to years.
The release of nitrogen from organic matter of any type requires moisture
and warmth, because it depends on microbial activity. If it is too dry or too
cold for microbes to be active, then little nitrogen is released.

Phosphorus (P2O5)
Phosphorus is supplied as phosphate-containing soil minerals and soil
organic matter that gradually breaks down, releasing phosphorus for plant
uptake. One of the most important factors in determining the availability of
phosphorus to plants is the pH of the soil. In mineral soils, phosphorus is
most available when pH is between 6 and 7.
Many soils which have received manure or synthetic applications over a
number of years contain relatively high levels of soil phosphorus. In soils
which have not been so fertilized, phosphorus levels may be low. Rock
powders such as colloidal phosphate and rock phosphate can be applied to
build up the phosphorus-supplying power of a soil over time. However, these
products become available to plants very slowly, and cannot be relied upon
to supply adequate phosphorus to a crop the year of application when soil
levels of phosphorus are low. They are more efficiently used by incorporating
into a compost-making operation where the compost process will make them
more available to plants.
Organic fertilizer materials and manure also contain phosphorus, which is
made available as the materials decompose in the soil. Bone meal has a
relatively high concentration of available phosphorus compared to other
organic fertilizers, and poultry manure has a higher concentration of
phosphorus than other manures.

Potassium (K)
Potassium becomes available to plants by the gradual breakdown of soil
minerals and clays. Rock powders such as granite dust and greensand
contain 1-7% potash (K2O) but they break down very slowly and are of little
fertilizer value. Potassium magnesium sulfate (langbeinite) and potassium

54
sulfate provide K in a readily-available form. These materials both supply
sulfur and the former supplies magnesium, both essential plant nutrients.
Compost and animal manure are other sources of readily-available K.

SECONDARY NUTRIENTS
Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are often in adequate supply in the soil. If
the pH is in the desired range, calcium levels usually are adequate. The most
common calcium source is agricultural limestone, which also raises the soil
pH. Magnesium is supplied by break down of soil minerals. If soil tests or
plant response suggest a deficiency, it can be supplied from sulfate of potash
magnesia, magnesium sulfate (epsom salts), or, if an increase in soil pH is
desirable, dolomitic lime. Sulfur becomes available as organic matter
decomposes and as soil minerals break down. Subsoils often contain higher
levels of sulfur which can be tapped into by growing deep-rooted crops or
cover crops. When soil levels of sulfur are inadequate, potassium magnesium
sulfate, potassium sulfate, or magnesium sulfate are good sources.

Micronutrients
Mineral nutrients required in smaller amounts than those mentioned in
preceding paragraphs are usually in adequate supply when the soil pH is at
the desired level. These include manganese, iron, copper, zinc, boron, and
molybdenum. If a deficiency is suspected, it is important to have it
accurately diagnosed before taking corrective measures. Metal chelates or
sulfates, borax, and sodium molybdate are used to correct deficiencies when
necessary.

Cover Crops
Important components of soil fertility management in organic production are
rotations which include cover crops and/or sod-forming crops. Cover crops
are planted for the primary purpose of improving and maintaining soil
fertility. Typically they are in the field for less than a year, and often grow
during periods when the land would otherwise be left fallow. Sod-forming
crops, such as a legume/grass pasture, may grow for several years or more,
and may have uses in addition to the soil-building function.

Insect Management
In organic systems, insect pests are managed preventively rather than
curatively. The idea is to alter the system so that pests do not find the
plants, are controlled by natural enemies, or their damage is kept to a
minimum. Insect management is also dependent upon having a healthy

55
organic system. This includes a proper balance of nutrients in the soil and in
the plant. Plants that are vigorous have a much better ability to withstand
damage caused by insects and disease. Healthy soil and plants, therefore,
are the best defense. Table 3 (at the end of this publication) gives
information on pests and which of the following management systems might
work best in their control.
Biological Control

In organic systems, much of the “control” of insect pests is by natural

enemies. These natural enemies can be broken into two major categories:
predators and parasitoids. Predators catch and eat their prey much like
wolves or other carnivores. There are several predator species commonly
found in gardens (Figure 1). Lady beetles are oval and usually red, orange, or
yellow with black spots. Lady beetle eggs, laid in groups of 5-20, are oblong
and orangish/yellow. Eggs are almost always laid near some prey, so that
when the eggs hatch, larvae will have a food source.

The other group of natural enemies is parasitoids (or parasites). These are
adult insects that usually do not eat their prey, instead they lay their eggs on
or in the host (insect) such as a caterpillar, and when the eggs hatch,
immatures use the host as food. Some parasitoids are very specific in
selection, while others are more general. Many parasitoids are relatively
small wasps that will be seldom seen, but the results can be detected if one
knows what to look for. For instance, parasitic wasps often attack aphids and
other sucking insects resulting in mummified prey. A parasitized aphid will be
about two times its normal size and be brownish-tan. The parasitized aphid
will not move. If there is no hole in the parasitized aphid, the wasp is still
inside. The immature

Two other types of natural enemies are birds and bats. Birds will eat a
variety of pests and some beneficial insects too, as will bats. Attracting birds
to your farm is possible, but a large scale (larger than just a vegetable field)
is usually necessary. Bats can be encouraged to roost nearby by putting up
bat houses or being sure not to disturb a nearby colony.

Companion Planting (Intercropping)

In natural systems (especially old field) there is always a variety of plant

species. However, in the vegetable garden we abandon this companion
planting scheme and make our vegetables mini-monocultures. There has
been much said and written

56
The key to mixing plants is usually NOT the repelling action per se, but the
plants contrasting “desirability” to the pest. In a complex system where
plants are mixed, insect pests spend a great deal of time moving from plant
to plant looking for the right one instead of eating. When they are moving,
the pests are much more vulnerable to natural enemies and diseases.
Companion plantings should be chosen so they 1) will not interfere with one
anotherʼs growth and 2) are from different groups so that the pest cannot
utilize both of the plant types present. For example, flea beetles can feed on
many members of the Solanaceae family, so peppers or tomatoes would be
poor companion plants. Herbs make good companion plants, as most insects
do not like their taste. Beans (dry or snap) would also work as a companion
plant with eggplant.

Farmscaping
Just as you can mix plants in your vegetable field you can also plan your
entire farm for positive interactions of plants. For example, to attract birds to
your farm grow a border (or an area of your farm) that has fruiting trees and
shrubs in it. The larger the area the better, but even a narrow border will
help. A portion of the farm may be left to a natural area of diverse plants
that flower at different times, have different growth patterns, and different
light needs. When compared with bedding plants, native plants attract more
natural enemies and require less care.

Timing of Plantings

Sometimes pests will cycle, peaking at certain times of the summer or be

present at only one time. Knowing when this occurs can allow you to plant
earlier or later to avoid pests. For example, the adult seed.

Trap crops

These crops are used to lure a particular pest away from a more important
crop. The trap crop is usually considered expendable and is usually
destroyed once it is heavily infested. If it does not become heavily infested
and retains most of the pests that visit it, then it can be left in the field. An
example would be using Hubbard Squash to attract squash vine borer and
striped cucumber beetle away from watermelon, pumpkin. Corn (sweet or
field) before silking will attract European cornborer from plantings of pepper
and earworms (fruitworms) from tomatoes.

57
Mechanical Controls

These include barriers and physical controls. A mechanical barrier is

anything that physically prevents the pest from reaching the crop. The most
common barrier is row cover. The most common row cover is REMAY®,
which is spun-bound polyester; another material is cheesecloth. The barrier
can be laid directly on plants or supported above plants with wire or other
supports. Other barriers could include plastic or metal cylinders (e.g., metal
soup cans with the top and bottom removed, plastic milk jugs with bottom
cut out) surrounding small plants to protect them from cutworm or
armyworm feeding.

Cultural Controls
These include those already discussed such as trap crops, inter-planting a
companion crop, using organic or non-organic mulches, proper fertilization
and watering. By using rotationof crops, following one crop that is not closely
related to another (e.g., corn or legumes following tomatoes or crucifers)
growers can disrupt disease tilling under or composting crops that have been
harvested for the last time to stop insect pests from building their
population. Broccoli or cauliflower should be removed completely once
harvest is over to stop cabbage worms from using the plants as a nursery.
Destroy all potatoes and volunteers after harvest to cut down on Colorado
potato beetle food sources before they go into hibernation. When these
biological or cultural controls do not work, then the grower has to make more
immediate management decisions to stop the pest. This is when organic
pesticides may be used.

Organic Pesticides

Organic pesticides are products usually made from plants that control insects
by killing, repelling, or disrupting their life cycle. Because of differences in
certifying agencies, it is best to check on the status of the following “organic
pesticides” to see if they are allowed, restricted, or prohibited for use in your
organic system. Some organic products may contain unacceptable additions
to them so that even though the active ingredient is allowed the other
chemicals are not.

58
Disease Management
Diseases can be very difficult to control in organic systems. Once a disease is
present and the environmental conditions favourthedisease, there is little an
organic grower can do. Therefore it is best to be proactive.

Crop Rotation

Many disease-causing microorganisms (pathogens) can survive in plant

debris. When one plants a specific crop year after year in the same soil, the
pathogens can build up to high levels. Crop rotation allows the plant debris
to decay and the associated pathogens to die out. If pathogens survive in the
soil itself, crop rotations will have to be longer. Growers should rotate from
the crop in question to a crop in another family. For example, after growing
tomatoes, one should avoid tomatoes, potatoes, peppers, and eggplants for
the length of the rotation. Whether crop rotation is effective or not and the
length of crop rotation required are listed under each crop/disease
combination.

Tillage

Decay of plant debris can be hastened by tilling the debris into the soil. The
sooner the plant debris is buried, the sooner decay starts and the pathogens
die out. Therefore, it is often wise to till a field in the fall. The deeper the
debris is buried, the better. Moldboard plowing may be advisable.

Resistant Cultivars

Resistant cultivars are an organic growers’ best friend. If at all possible, use
resistant varieties to avoid disease problems in the first place. Unfortunately,
resistant varieties are not available for all situations. In addition, varieties
that are resistant may lack desirable horticultural characteristics or
consumer preference. The availability of resistant varieties is a prerequisite
of plant breeders, pathologists and entomologists.

Weed Management
Organic growers manage weeds using a combination of methods.
The mix of weed species in a field changes in response to the
cropping practices used over a period of years; the weed species
and types most adapted to the practices in use will increase in
number, and those poorly adapted will decrease. As organic
practices are adopted, the mix of weed species will probably
59
change; weeds that were difficult to control will become
manageable, and weeds hardly noticed before will become the
problem weeds. The more diverse the weed management program,
the better chance that no weed will be well-adapted to it. Attention
to timing is critical for successful weed management.In most cases,
the smaller the weed, the easier it is to control. Some cultivation tools work
well only on very small weeds, others can kill larger weeds as well. The
timing of control in relation to crop growth is also important. Most
vegetable crops show little yield loss if kept weed-free from 3 to 6 weeks
after planting. Those weeds that emerge soon after the crop is planted are
likely to reduce yield. Make controlling such weeds a priority. Late-
emerging weeds may need to be controlled to prevent additions of
weed seed to the soil, to ease harvest operations, or for good
appearance of the field.

Prevention
Minimize weed seed additions to the soil. Weed seeds can live for
many years in the soil, but some buried seeds die or are eaten every
year. If the addition of weed seeds can be avoided, the number of viable
weed seeds decreases and it will be easier to control the remaining weeds.
This really can make a difference. Weeds that have escaped early season
weed control measures and are about to flower, or have flowered, should be
killed and, if they have flowered, removed from the field to prevent
maturation and dispersal of the seed back into the field. Weeds can also be
brought into a field in manure, compost, hay, straw, animal feed, and other
material. Whenever you apply something to a field, make an effort to learn
whether there are weed seeds present, and evaluate benefits of the material
versus potential for causing a weed problem.

Cover Cropping
A fallow field grown together with weeds is a source of weed seed
for itself and the rest of the farm. A cover crop instead of a fallow
will reduce weed growth by competing with the weed for light,
space, moisture and nutrients, thereby reducing weed seed growth.

Living Mulches
Once established, a living mulch can compete with weeds and
reduce weed seed growth.An unmanaged living mulch can have

60
much the same effect on a crop as weeds, competing for space,
light, water, and nutrients, and reducing yield of the crop.

Biological Diversity

Encourage biological activity to reduce weed seed survival. Weed

seeds are eaten by a variety of soil organisms, attacked by
microbes, and eaten by insects, rodents and birds. The more
biological activity in the soil and environment, the fewer weed
seeds will be left to germinate. Practices such as adding organic
matter to the soil, using organic mulches, rotating crops, planting a
variety of crops, and cultivating diversity along field edges all
promote biological activity.

Sustainable agriculture

Currently there are two types of agricultural production systems:

Firstly an environmentally sensitive modern system based on
application of high cost inputs practiced in much of sub-Saharan
Africa. The economic consequences of this form of agriculture are:

 high economic costs

 soil chemical and physical deterioration
 water pollution
 contamination of the environment by pesticides

Secondly, the environmentally conservative traditional forms of

agriculture practised by resource poor farmers in much of the
tropics.
These forms of agriculture are no longer sustainable due to:

 poor yields
 increased human and animal populations
 pressures on land

Sustainable agriculture is the successful management of resources to

satisfy human agricultural needs, while maintaining or enhancing
the quality of the environment and conservation of natural
resources (FAO, 1989).

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Features of a sustainable agricultural system are:

i. Ecologically sound
The quality of natural resources should be maintained and the entire Agro-
ecosystem should be maintained i.e. humans, crops, animals, and soil
organisms.

ii. Economically viable

Farmers should be able to produce enough for self-sufficiency and/or income
and gain sufficient returns to guarantee the labour and costs.

iii. Socially just

The resources and power should be distributed in such a way that the basic
needs of all members of the society are met and their rights to land use,
adequate capital, technical assistance and market are assured.

iv. Humane
All forms of life, i.e. human, animal and plant should be respected. The
fundamental dignity of all human beings should be recognised hence
preserving the cultural and spiritual integrity of the society.

v. Adaptable
The rural communities should be able to adjust to the constantly changing
conditions for farming i.e. population growth, policies, market demand etc.
All innovations/technologies should have social and cultural interests at
heart.

Need for sustainable agriculture

The growing appeal in the concept of sustainable agriculture is
mainly due to the productivity of tropical soils having been
declining during the past 20 yearsdespite the growing
population.Degradation of the environment in general as a result of
over-utilization of the high input agricultural practices, soils are
degraded, river bodies are polluted etc.

Objectives of sustainable agriculture

Sustainable agriculture seeks to develop the application of
biological principles for the purpose of enhancing agricultural
resource stability, improving resource use efficiency and enhancing
productivity of the land.

The objectives of sustainable agriculture can be met by:

 crop rotations

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 enhancing soil fertility
 diversifying crops
 diversifying animals
 biological control of pests

Principles of soil management

There are five suggested basic principles of soil management that
are essential for a sustainable agricultural system:

i. Inorganic nutrients removed by crops must be replenished

in the soil
ii. The physical condition of the soil must be maintained. The
humus level of the soil must be maintained or enhanced.
iii. There must be no increase in soil acidity or build up of toxic
elements
iv. Soil erosion must be controlled to be equal to or less than
the rate of soil formation
v. There must be no build up of weeds, pests and plant
diseases of the soil

Soil organic matter

One of the most important aspects of productivity of tropical soils is
the management of soil organic matter or soil humus. Soil organic
matter refers to all remains of animals and plants.

Soil humus

refers mainly to the end product of decomposition of dead plants,

animals and excreta within or on the soil. During decomposition, the
following elements are released from their organic form: Ammonium
(NH4+), Phosphate (H2PO4+) and Sulphate (SO42-), this process is
referred to as mineralization. The final product of decomposition of
organic matter is known as humus.This substance is resistant to further
decomposition and is dark brown in colour. Humus is responsible for the
dark appearance of the upper surface of the soil profile.

Functions of soil humus

 it promotes the aggregation of soils leading to reduced soil
erosion, increased moisture infiltration, increased moisture
retention
 it acts as a buffer system hence preventing the shifting of soil
acidity to extremes

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  It is the major source of plant nutrients like nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S).
 It works to combat toxic metal concentrations by forming
stable complexes within the soil
 It is a source of nutrients for soil organisms such as fungi,
bacteria, actinomycetes, earthworms and termite. These are
organisms that are responsible for the decomposition,
mineralization, humus formation and nutrient cycling in the
soil.

A soil rich in humus possesses considerable protection against possible soil

borne plant diseases due to competition, parasitism, predation, antagonism
and antibiotic production within the soil by micro-organisms.

Losses of organic matter from the soil

The loss of organic matter from the soil is mainly attributed to the
activities of man, which includes:

 Continuous cultivation of fields-this leads to excessive loss of

organic matter because of increased mineralization.
 Burning of fields in the name of land preparation leads to the
destruction of organic matter from the fields leaving non for
decomposition.
 Overgrazing by animals depletes most of the organic matter
from the fields.
 Total suppression of weeds through application of herbicides
leads to the totsl eradication of organic matter from fields.
 Within the tropics, loss of organic matter is also attributed to
high temperature, which leads to high decomposition rates.

Management of soil humus

The content of organic matter (humus) in the soil can only be maintained or
increased by regular addition of organic material. Tropical soils require
more frequent and regular applications of organic matter because of
high decomposition rates normally experienced.The options to
management of soil humus include:

i. Mulching
This is a crop husbandry practice in which organic material is deliberately
spread over the soil surface to influence the physical, chemical and biological
properties of the soil with the aim of improving its productivity.

64
ii. Fallowing
This is the practice of letting land to lie uncultivated for 3-4 years, this helps
the land to regenerate itself and also to break the life cycle of pests.

Other methods are:

iii. Agroforestry
v. Green manuring
vi. Farm yard manuring
vii. Composting

UNIT 7.0: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF CROP PRODUCTION

Soil tillage

Tillage refers to all the work that a farmer will do to prepare the
land for planting and crop growth. Tillage is the mechanical
manipulation of the soil with the aim of promoting good tilth for
crop growth. This refers to the physical condition of the soil in relation to
crop growth.Objectives of tillage are:
 To prepare a seed bed
 To remove weeds
 To incorporate plant or crop residues
 To improve drainage
 To eliminate pests
 To conserve soil moisture

Common tillage operations

Commonly used tillage operations include the following:
i. Ploughing
This is the loosening and turning of the soil, if done between may and august
it is referred to as winter ploughing. Ploughing will normally leave big clods
behind, unless for very sandy or fairly moist soils.
ii. Discing or harrowing
This is the breaking down of all big clods in the field in order to have a fine
tilth. Discing is usually a follow-up to ploughing unless where no big clods
were left from ploughing. Harrowing may also be done to get rid of all weeds,
grass, remaining after ploughing.

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 iii. Ridging
This is the raising up of the soil in rows on which the crop is to be grown. The
ridges should be at least 30cm high for most field crops except for tuber
crops like cassava, sweet potatoes etc. Ridges are usually employed where
flooding of fields is expected. The advantages of ridging are that there is an
improvement of drainage and weeding is made easy, Plant roots are kept
away from the water logged conditions in areas where water logging is being
experienced.
iv. Sub soiling
This is the ripping of the land to the depth of up to 80cm or more. The aim of
sub soiling is to break soil hard pans which might have developed in the soil
due to ploughing to the same depth. Sub-soiling also helps to improve root
penetration within the soil and also to improve infiltration of water within the
soil.
v. Cultivation or inter-tillage
This refers to tillage practices that are done to already growing crops.
Intertillage operations include weeding, earthing up, aeration and re-ridging.
Classification of tillage
Depending on the stage at which tillage is being done, tillage
operations can be classified into the following:
i. Primary tillage
This is the initial breaking up of the land before any other
operations can be done in the field.Primary tillage usually results in
big soil clods being left behind leading to a rough seedbed. Primary
tillage mainly involves ploughing, and this is normally to the depth of
about 25-30cm. For primary tillage, heavy and inverting implements
are normally used e.g. mould-board plough, disc plough.

Objectives of primary tillage are:

 to break up the soil
 to bury crop residues
 to control weeds

66
 ii. Secondary tillage
This refers to all tillage operations done after primary tillage, and
these include:
 Harrowing (discing)
 Inter-cultivation (weeding)
Light and non-inverting implements are normally used e.g. disc harrows for
discing and cultivators for weeding.

Selection of a tillage system:

There is no best tillage system that can be recommended for all
situations as the choice will vary with respect to several factors.
Factors that are likely to influence the tillage system to select
include:
Climate
The climate usually plays a very bigger role in selecting which tillage system
to employ. Climatic factors to consider are:
Precipitation (Rainfall)
Where too much rainfall is experienced, then ridging is much preferred.
Under the same conditions, the same ridges should be made across the
slope to cut down on runoff of water.

Radiation (Sunshine)
In cases of too much sunshine, it is advisable to always leave some crop
residues on the surface when preparing land, this will act as mulch and
hence reduce excessive evaporation of moisture.
Wind
In cases of strong winds being experienced, it is recommended that the
ridges should always be aligned perpendicular to the direction of the wind,
this is to help reduce wind erosion by breaking the flow of the wind. On flat
land always leave a rough seedbed, this is because if the seedbed is too fine,
the soil can be easily blown off by wind.
Crop to be grown

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Different crops require different soil physical conditions for growth. A deep,
loose root zone is required for tuber crops in order to enhance expansion of
the roots and tubers. A fine tilth seedbed is required for small seeded crops
e.g. millet for easy emergence from the soil. A trash free surface is required
for short statured crops like soyabeans which do not grow very upright
because trash in the field may hamper the growth of short statured crops..
Soil factors:
The following soil factors should always be considered when
selecting tillage methods:

Slope
On slopping lands, a tillage system that reduces chances of erosion should
be selected. Ridges should always be made across the slope.
Soil texture
On sandy soils, non-pulverising implements e.g. chisel ploughs should be
selected than pulverising ploughs like mould boards. This reduces further
breaking down of sandy soils hence making them more prone to wind and
water erosion.
Soil depth
Soil depth refers to the depth of the soil from the surface to the untellable
layer i.e. horizon C in most cases, where there are rocks and it is too gravely.
The aim is not to bring these undesirable soil features (rocks) to the surface.
On shallow soils, non-inverting i.e. non-turning implements should be
selected so as to avoid bringing rocks and other undesirables to the surface
layers.

Soil drainage
On soils that are easily water-logged, a tillage system that assists in getting
rid of excess water should be selected e.g. making of ridges and dip
ploughing should be encouraged in this case.
Economic level of the farmer
Where farmers have good capital, they are able to select from a wide range
of tillage systems. Resource poor farmers will tend to restrict themselves to
simple implements like hoes, ox drawn ploughs etc. Big commercial farmers
are able to use tractor mounted implements under various conditions.

68
Other factors influencing selection of tillage systems are:
 preference of the farmer
 cultural and social influences
 government policies

Tillage types;
Depending on the number of operations, types of operations and
the objective, the following types of tillage can be identified:
i. Conventional tillage
This is tillage that involves both primary and secondary tillage. The
main objective under conventional tillage is to prepare a fine
pulverised and clean seed bed.In this case discing may even be done
twice, conventional tillage is usually the normal trend under commercial
large scale farming. The main operations under conventional tillage are
ploughing and discing.
Advantages
 a clean seed bed is prepared because there is complete pulverization
of the soil.
 easy placement of seed and planting material because a fine tilth is
usually attained
 weeds are eradicated mechanically by both primary and secondary
tillage.

Disadvantages
 needs a lot of time to prepare the field
 the soil is left exposed to eroding agents because the soils are made
very fine
 more labour is required to prepare the field because of the many
activities involved
 more fuel is required to complete the job for both primary and
secondary tillage
ii. Minimum tillage (Reduced tillage)

69
Minimum tillage refers to the practice of reducing tillage operations
to the minimum required to just plant the crop. Operations like
ploughing and discing may be done at once.The objectives of minimum
tillage is to reduce soil erosion, this is because the times that the soil is
disturbed is reduced. Minimum tillage also aims at saving time on the
operations involved as some operations are not done. There is also the
saving of costs on fuel and labour because of the reduced operations.
Advantages
 can be done on steep land because the soil is not left very fine
 there is a reduction in soil compaction, because of reduced passage of
machinery on the field.
iii. Conservation tillage (CT)
Conservation tillage refers to the use of practices that in
combination conserve the soil, soil moisture, fertilizer, seed,
energy, time and money. Some of the techniques involved in
conservation tillage are:
a. Leaving crop residues on the soil surface.
The main objective of this are to protect the soil surface from erosion
because the crop residues will act as a cover to the soil, to add humus after
decomposition of the crop residues and to regulate soil temperatures as the
soils will remain covered for some time.
b. Reducing tillage operations
The main objective for this are to conserve the soil structure as the soils are
not oftenly disturbed, to save time and labour as most of the operations are
cut off and finally this leads to the saving of fuel costs.
c. Pot-holing
This is the practice of making pot holes in the field as crops are growing. This
is a common practice in areas of erratic rainfall. The main objectives for this
are to harvest rainfall and to conserve soil moisture. Pot-holes under
conservation farming should not be confused with permanent planting holes.
d. Permanent planting holes
This is the practice of making permanent basins in the field for planting.
These basins are used every season and hence become permanent planting
basins. This ensures that the residual manures and fertilizers will be in the
same place where the seeds will be placed every season. The main

70
objectives for using permanent planting holes are to save time on land
preparation, to save on the amount of fertilizers to use every season and to
save on seed.
e. Minimum tillage (Reduced tillage)
This is a form of tillage where tillage operations are reduced to a minimum
required to just plant a crop.
f.Zero tillage
This is a form of conservation tillage where no physical tillage is done except
to cut the soil open and insert the seed and sometimes fertilizer. In zero
tillage, about 65-100% plant residues are left on the soil surface.
Advantages of conservation tillage:
 good soil moisture conservation
 good soil conservation
 steep land can be used for crop production with less danger to soil
erosion
 less time is needed for land preparation
 saves labour and fuel costs
 there is reduced soil compaction
Disadvantages
 it requires better management skills, like in zero tillage
 there is a likely build-up of pests and diseases due to residues being left
on the soil surface
 works well mainly with large seeded crops
 a uniform and even seed bed may not be achieved.

Considerations for conservation tillage

i. Conservation tillage should be considered under the following
conditions:
ii. When the soils are susceptible to erosion because in this case then
there is need to conserve the soils from excessive erosion which
may degrade the soils.

71
 iii. When the soils are highly degraded i.e. the soil structure is
destroyed, the soils are highly eroded, conservation tillage should
be put in place in order to reclaim and maintain the soils.
iv. When sloppy land is t be used for crop production, these lands are
prone to erosion therefore there is need to institute conservation
tillage measures in order to protect the soils.
v. When the cost of production is high with respect to fuel and labour,
conservation tillage measures need to be put in place so that there
is conservation of inputs like fuel etc.
vi. When there is a concern for the sustainability of natural resources,
conservation measures need to be put n place n order to ensure the
conservation and sustainability of natural resources.

Time for land preparation

The aim in land preparation should be to prepare land early so that
early planting is achieved. Early planting is important because this
will give the crop adequate time to grow and mature when
conditions are still favourable. Late land preparation will result in
late planting, this means that the potential yield of the crop will not
be realized. In Zambia, land for rain-fed crops can be prepared in:
 may-august (winter ploughing)
 a few weeks before rains start
 a few weeks after rains have started
May-August land preparation
The preparation of land between may-august is referred to as winter
ploughing, at this time (may-august) it is only primary tillage that is done. A
few weeks before rains start discing is then done in readiness for planting
(preparation of a fine tilth)
Advantages of winter ploughing:
 the soil is still moist at this time, this means less wear and tear of
implements.
 over-wintering insect pests and disease spores are exposed and killed
(desiccated).
 plant residues are buried and have enough time to decompose.

72
  early planting is made possible because part of the work in land
preparation is already done.
Dry soil land preparation
This is the preparation of land a few weeks before the onset of rains about 1-
2 weeks. This is a common practice with most farmers because after
harvesting of the crop there are other jobs to be done and hence less time
for winter ploughing.
Disadvantages
 The soils are too dry and this means that there is more power required
hence more fuel consumption.
 The dry condition of the soil results in big soil clods being left behind
after ploughing.
 The dry condition of the soil results in more wear and tear of
implements.
Advantages
 Early planting is possible

Moist soil land preparation

This is the preparation of land a few weeks into the rain season. The major
disadvantage with this type of land preparation is that it usually results in
late planting. The likely advantages are that the soils are moist resulting in
less wear and tear of implements and less power and fuel is required.
Regardless of the time land preparation, the overall aim is to achieve timely
planting so that the crop utilizes the rainfall-growing season fully. Late
plantings usually results in yield losses.
Crop sowing and establishment

This is the distribution of a pre-determined amount of seeds in the

field resulting in a specific plant density. Plant density refers to the
number of crops per unit area (unit area = ha). More technically
sowing is the placement of seed in the right environment for
germination and establishment i.e. to space the plants for maximum
performance.

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Time of seeding
The aim in timely seeding is to give the seed /crop enough time for
it to germinate, establish itself, grow and mature within the
conducive environment. Seeding time is important because it affects
the yield and the time of harvesting.

Factors influencing seeding time:

i. Growth period of crop/variety

Seeds should be sown so that the crop has enough time to grow to maturity
when the environmental conditions e.g. rainfall are still optimum. Long
maturing cultivars should be sown early so that they have the full benefit of
the growing season, unlike early maturing cultivars whose sowing can even
be delayed a bit as they can still give a good yield.

ii. Temperature

This affects both germination and growth of the crop. Low soil temperatures
affects (reduces) germination in crops e.g. soyabeans. Optimum soil
temperatures are important because these affects germination and crop
establishment.

iii. Photoperiod

Day length is important because some crops require short days to perform
successfully while others require short days, planting time therefore will be
affected accordingly.

iv. Crop rotation

In a growing sequence under crop rotation if one crop is harvested late it
may affect the sowing time of the following crop.

v. Crop spacing
This refers to the distance between planting stations (intra-row) and the
distance between rows (inter-row). Any given spacing will determine the
plant density.

vi. Need for optimum spacing

To reduce competition among crops for growth factors like water, nutrients,
light etc. crops will have adequate space from where to draw all these crop
growth factors.

To check (reduce) the easy spread of diseases and insect pests, diseases and
insect pests easily spread when crops are highly crowded (closely spaced).

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For easy management of crops in the field as this ensures adequate space
for other operations in the field.

Factors influencing crop spacing:

i. Soil fertility

This refers to the ability of the soil to supply growth factors to the crops
especially nutrients. A highly fertile soil can support a high plant population
than a less fertile one, this means that spacing can be reduced on a more
fertile soil.

ii. Growth habit of crop

This varies between crops and varieties within a crop. Crops that spread out
e.g. groundnuts need more space to grow than crops that grow upright e.g.
soyabeans.

iii. Level of management

Management level refers to the ability of a farmer to afford inputs like
fertilizers, chemicals. Under a high level of management reduced spacing
can be employed than on low-level management.

Seed rate
This is the amount of seed to be sown per unit area and is
expressed in Kg/ha. The amounts to sow will differ depending on the
crop species and other factors like soil fertility. A consideration of the
seed rate should always be done when sowing because the seed rate affects
the plant population and this in turn affects the management of the crops.

Factors influencing the seeding rate:

i. Desired plant population

A higher plant population requires a high seed rate and vice versa, if a
farmer desires a higher plant population then the farmer has to use a high
seedrate.

ii. Seed grade and size

A seedlot with a low germination percentage should be sown at a higher rate
for in order to compensate for the low germination rate. Larger seeds e.g.
maize ‘large flats’ needs a high seed rate for the same population than a
small grade size of maize seed ‘small flats’ because naturally large seeds will
give large plants that requires bigger space to grow.

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 iii. Seed type
The seed rate for very small seeded crops is very low e.g. 200g of tomato
seed is required for 1 ha while 3000Kg is needed for 1 ha for potato seed,
20Kg seed per ha for maize.

iv. Crop establishment method

Crops raised from nurseries e.g. tobacco, paddy rice need a lower seed rate
than those intended to be sown in-situ due to high mortalities.

Plant population
This refers to the number of plants per unit area. This unit area is
often taken to be a hectare. It is usually recommended that the
optimum number of plants are planted on a given unit area of land.
Over-populating or under-populating a field has their own problems.

Importance of optimum plant population

i. To supply enough nutrients to the crops and growth factors like,
sunlight, water etc. so that there is no competition for all the
necessary crop growth factors.
ii. To easily manage the crop, a densely populated field is usually
difficult to manage because it is difficult to move operate tools or
machinery under this state.
iii. When the population is too high, the total yield falls due to
competition for growth factors by crops. Plants become etiolated
and easily lodge.

Factors influencing the plant population:

i. Seed rate
The higher the seed rate the higher the expected plant population, because
this means that there will be more plants from the more seeds that are
sown, lower seed rates will give a low plant population.

ii. Sowing method

High plant populations are normally expected when seeds are sown using
broadcasting and drilling methods than when methods like precision drilling
are used. Under broadcasting the germination percentage is lower and to
compensate for this a higher seed rate is normally sown

iii. Sowing depth

Seeds should be sown to the optimum depth to facilitate germination and
emergence and establishment of seedlings in the field. The sowing depth is
an important consideration in crop management in order to achieve of easy

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germination and emergence of seedlings and also to achieve early
establishment of seedlings.

Factors influencing sowing depth:

i. Seed size
In general the larger the seed the deeper it can be sown and still emerge
from an arable soil. Small seeded crops e.g. millet requires shallow sowing
because these seeds have low energy reserves to enable them push out
through the soil..

ii. Soil type and condition

The state and texture of the soil can also influence the depth to which seeds
can be sown, seeds can be sown deep in sandy soils and still emerge
successfully than when sown deep in heavy (clayey) soils. Seeds can be
sown deep in warm soils and still emerge successfully than in cold soils. In
dry soils, seeds should be sown deep in order to place the seeds in contact
with moisture and also not to make them emerge with the first few showers
of the season which may not be enough to support growth after germination.

iii. Seed type

Hypogeal germinating seeds e.g. maize will emerge from a greater depth
because the shoot comes out in a spear like form which will easily push
through the soil. Epigeal germinating seeds e.g. beans seedlings must push
the cotyledons up through the soil surface, therefore these need not be sown
too deep otherwise the seedlings may fail to push the seedlings above the
soil surface.

Sowing methods:
i. Broadcasting

This is where seeds are scattered throughout the field with no specific
pattern, hands or machines can be used. Broadcasted seed is then lightly
covered with soil, in most cases smaller seeded crops like millet are sown by
broadcasting especially under peasant faming systems. The disadvantages
with broadcasting is that there is no pattern of seedling establishment.

ii. Row/Line planting

This is where seeds are sown in rows. Line or row planting facilitates field
operations like weeding, fertilizer applications, spraying etc.

Types of row/line planting are:

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 a. Drilling
Seeds are sown in rows in furrows called drills and the lightly covered with
soil. The distance between seeds is not kept constant and is usually very
small.

b. Precision drilling
This is the type of drilling where the distance between seeds in a row is kept
constant and one seed is sown at a time in a row.

c. Dibbling
This is where a hole is made in a row and several seeds are dropped in each
hole.

Planting patterns under line planting include:

i. Rectangular planting

This is where the distance rows are larger than the distance between
stations within a row.

ii. Square planting

This is where the distance between rows is equal to the distance between
stations within a row.

iii. Twin row planting

This is where a pair of rows with a less distance between them is positioned
at a larger distance from another pair of rows.

iv. Triangular/hexagonal planting

This is where the distance between any adjacent stations is the same in any
direction.

Irrigation

Irrigation plays an important role in realizing the full yield potential

of a particular crop. There are several methods of irrigation. These
include furrow, basin, bucket drip, residual moisture, and overhead
irrigation.Although all these methods are available, the method of irrigation
to be used by the farmer will depend on soil type, water source, labour
availability, size of the production area as well as socio-economic factors.

Adequate water supply to the crop facilitates uptake of plant

nutrients from the soil. Water supplied to the crop should be at
optimum level as both excess and inadequate amounts have

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adverse effects. Excess water may promote attack by some
diseases and cause root damage. A crop that has not been
adequately supplied with water on the other hand has a slower
growth rate resulting in lower yields of poorer quality. A water-
stressed crop also tends to be more vulnerable to pest and disease
attacks. Though irrigation scheduling is important to enablerational and
sustainable use of the available water, in most small scale farmers often do
not have water measuring devices, making it difficult to quantify the
amounts of water applied at any given time.

The irrigation interval (time period) taken between two irrigation

applications is a very important management tool for Irrigation
scheduling. It can assist an irrigating farmer to maximize irrigation
efficiencies, since measuring irrigation water depth or water requirements of
a crop is beyond the scope of most peasant farmers. In irrigation, the soil
moisture content should always be kept well above the wilting point. The soil
moisture content near the wilting point is not readily available to the plant
and will cost the plant a lot of energy to extract. Hence it is advisable to start
irrigating before the wilting point and to apply water up to field capacity.

Water loss from fields

Water that is supplied to the fields either as rain water or irrigated

water is lost from fields through several ways including through:

i. Runoff

Runoff refers to the washing away of water over the soil surface, runoff
occurs when water cannot quickly infiltrate into the soil and is then washed
off especially if more water is added at once and the field has a slight slope.
All the water that runs off the soil surface is eventually lost from the field and
not available for crop use.

ii. Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration is a combined term used to describe the combined effect

of evaporation (water loss) from the soil surface and transpiration (water
loss) from the plant leaves. The rate of evapotranspiration is normally
dependent on the following factors:

iii. Amount of sunshine

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The more the sunshine the more the water will be lost from the soil surface
(evaporation) as well as from the plant leaves (transpiration).

iv. Relative humidity of the air

When the relative humidity of the air is very low (very dry atmosphere) there
is a high rate of evapotranspiration from the fields, when the relative
humidity is very high (very wet atmosphere) there is a low rate of
evapotranspiration from the fields as the atmosphere is already saturated
with water vapour.

v. The wind

Heavy winds blowing through the field will increase the rates of
evapotranspiration, this is primarily because any water vapour that will
gather above the soil surface and the leaf surfaces will be quickly blown
away by the wind leaving a vacuum behind and hence drawing more water
vapour from the soil surface as well as the leaf surfaces.

Infiltration

Infiltration refers to the movement of water from the soil surface into the
soil, the speed at which this occurs is then called the infiltration rate. Some
soils like sandy soils have a high infiltration rate and will tend to allow water
to pass through the soil at a high rate as compared to soils that are clayey.

Irrigation interval

The irrigation interval refers to how often irrigation should be

done.It is the time between irrigations. The irrigation interval
depends on many factors that include:

i. Climate

The climate plays a very significant role on irrigation and irrigation intervals
in crop production, weather has an effect on irrigation and with respect to
the Zambia’s situation, the irrigation periods can be divided into three and
these are:

 Hot and very dry weather conditions with high transpiration rates i.e.
around late September, October and early November.
 Moderate weather condition, i.e. around August, September and April.
 Cool and dry with low transpiration rates i.e. around May, June and July.

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The effect of the climate on the irrigation interval is mainly through
the following:

a. Temperature

The higher the temperature the more the transpiration from the crops and
hence the higher the need to irrigate the crops in order to replace the lost
moisture through the high rates of transpiration from the plant leaves and
evaporation from the soil surface.

b. Wind

Windy conditions leads to increased rates of evapotranspiration, this results

in rapid loss of moisture from the soil surface and the leaf surfaces. There is
therefore an increased need to irrigate crops under windy conditions.

ii. Soil texture

Soil texture plays a major role in determining the irrigation intervals

of soils, because soil texture has an influence on soil water
retention capacity. Soil texture could be grouped into 3 classes:

1. Sandy -These are coarse soils with low water holding capacities
(less than. 90mm/m).

2. Loamy -These are medium soils or light soils with water holding
capacities up to 150 mm/m.

3. Clayey- Heavier loams with high water holding capacities - (more

than 200 mm/m).

iii. Crop type and stage of growth

iv. Rooting depth - The ability of plants to remove water from the soil
depends on the rooting system. Timing and quantity of water to
irrigate are affected by this.
v. Consumptive use - The amount of water that a crop requires at
any given point in time which is influenced by the stage of growth of
the crop and the evapotranspiration.

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 vi. Allowable depletion level of moisture for crops - The amount
of water the soil is allowed to dry out before the next irrigation and
is expressed as a percent (%) of the total available moisture.
vii. Method of irrigation - Surface, sprinkler or drip irrigation
determines the application depths of irrigation water.
viii. Cultural practices - Practices such as mulching influences the soil
moisture, etc.

For water to be utilized for irrigation, it often requires to be transported from

the source to some point where it can either be distributed further by some
conveyance method or utilized directly by the crop.

The different soil types:

Heavy A clayey soil with a high water holding capacity (180

mmlm).

Medium.A loamy soil with a moderate water holding capacity (130

mm/m).

Light. A sandy soil with a low water holding capacity (75

mm/m).

CROP PROTECTION

Crop protection relates to the practice of protecting crops in the

field and in store, this arises from the fact that crops in the field as
well as in store have so many enemies that may end up reducing the
yield of crops. While in the field crops need to be protected from weeds,
insects and diseases, similarly while in store crop harvest need to be
protected from storage insects e.g. weevils. Failure to protect crops
adequately either in the field or in store mat result in huge crop
losses. In Zambia it is a documented fact that if crops are left un protected
in the field the loss may go as much as 90% while if un protected while in
storage the loss may even go up to 100%.

Plant protection is therefore a very important aspect of crop production. The

study and practice of plant protection covers the protection of crops against
weeds, crop insect pests and crop diseases.

Weed management

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Weed control which is as old as agriculture itself is one of the most
expensive steps in crop production. In nature all plants are
supposed to grow in harmony. However with the selection and
domestication of plants man came up with the concept of weeds and
their control so as to give the crops more favourable growing
conditions.

Definition of a weed
A weed is any plant that is growing where it is not wanted and is
more detrimental (harmful) than beneficial. Weeds could be trees,
broadleaved plants, sedges, aquatic plants, parasitic plants, volunteer plants
etc. generally wild weeds are more difficult to control.

Harmful effects of weeds include:

By the nature of weeds being not wanted in our fields it therefore means that
there are some negative effects that they bring on our crops, some of these
effects includes the following:

1. Reduces the yield of crops

Weeds reduces the yield of crops through competition with crops fro
nutrients, light, water and growing space. Weeds reduce the amounts of
these growth factors available to crops and thereby reducing yields. Crops
are poor competitors in the early stages of growth and if weeds are not
controlled at this stage they will quickly out grow the crops and smother
them. A crop that is shaded by weeds will be etiolated, light coloured and will
not carry out photosynthesis effectively.

2. Reduction of the quality of the produce

The quality of crop products may be reduced e.g. weeds may affect the size
of the cobs and grains, the milling quality and nutrient value may also be
adversely affected. A high presence of weeds in a cotton field at the time of
harvesting may greatly reduce the quality of the cotton by a lot of trash
being picked together with the cotton.

Weed seeds and trash from weeds may reduce seed quality and also raise
the moisture content of grain in store thereby reducing the storability of
grain. The quality of livestock products may also be affected, weeds such as
wild Garlic (onion) may impart undesirable flavour on dairy products if such
weeds are eaten as animals are grazing. The quality of wool may also be
reduced if a lot of sticking weeds are found on the wool, some poisonous
plants may even cause injury or death to animals and consequently reduce
milk and beef production.

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3. Harbouring insect pests and diseases
Many weed species are also used as natural host plants fro many diseases
and insect pests that also attack cultivated crops. For example Barbarea
vulgaris is an alternative host of a fungus causing wheat stem rust, many
legume weeds are a source of Bacterial blight in beans and species of the
compositae family are hosts of the fungus causing Downy mildew in Lettuce
etc.

The pink Boll worm of cotton will also live on many wild relatives of cotton
and stalk borers will thrive well on Elephant grass and Napier grass.

4. Increase in production costs

Weeds increases the cost of production of crops, special equipment such as

mowers, sprayers, and cultivators have to be bought for the control of
weeds. The higher of labour to weed and the purchase of chemicals to
control weeds all lead to an increase in the costs of production.

5. Decrease in land value

Land value may be decreased by the presence of weeds,particularly
noxious and perennial weeds e.g. Lantana camara. Such lands will
have to be sold at a very low price taking into consideration the amount of
money that will be spent inn trying to clear the weeds.

6. Blockage of the irrigation canals

Weeds growing on ditch banks or growing in the canals may seriously impair
the efficiency of irrigation resulting in the cost of trying to clear the canals
every year. Water bodies may also be choked by weeds e.g. the Kafue weed
(Salviniamolesta).

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