Unit 1: Solid State
1.1. Definitions and Characteristics of Solids
Solids are characterized by a definite shape, volume, and close packing of
particles.
Types of solids: Crystalline and Amorphous
Crystalline Solids: Ordered structure (e.g., NaCl, Quartz)
Amorphous Solids: Disordered structure (e.g., Glass, Rubber)
1.2. Classification of Crystals
Crystal System: 7 types based on unit cell geometry.
Cubic, Tetragonal, Orthorhombic, Rhombohedral, Monoclinic, Triclinic, Hexagonal
Unit Cell: The smallest repeating unit of the crystal structure.
Lattice Points: Positions in the crystal where particles are located.
1.3. Packing in Solids
Close Packing: Maximum packing efficiency.
FCC (Face-Centered Cubic): Packing efficiency = 74%
HCP (Hexagonal Close Packing): Packing efficiency = 74%
Coordination Number: Number of nearest neighbors of a particle.
Void: Empty space between particles.
1.4. Properties of Solids
Electrical Conductivity: Conductive solids have free electrons (e.g., metals).
Magnetic Properties: Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Ferromagnetic behavior.
1.5. Defects in Solids
Point Defects: Vacancy, interstitial, and substitutional.
Line Defects: Dislocations.
Surface Defects: Grain boundaries.
Unit 2: Solutions
2.1. Types of Solutions
Solid in Liquid (e.g., Salt in water)
Liquid in Liquid (e.g., Alcohol in water)
Gas in Liquid (e.g., CO₂ in water)
2.2. Concentration Terms
Molarity (M): moles of solute per liter of solution.
Molality (m): moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
Normality (N): equivalents of solute per liter of solution.
2.3. Colligative Properties
Vapor Pressure Lowering
Boiling Point Elevation
Freezing Point Depression
Osmotic Pressure
2.4. Raoult's Law
The partial vapor pressure of a solvent in a solution is proportional to the mole
fraction of the solvent.
𝑃
1
𝑋
=
𝑃
⋅
1
0
P
1
=X
1
⋅P
1
0
2.5. Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions
Ideal Solutions: Obey Raoult’s Law throughout the concentration range.
Non-Ideal Solutions: Do not obey Raoult’s Law completely, showing deviation.
Unit 3: Electrochemistry
3.1. Redox Reactions
Oxidation: Loss of electrons.
Reduction: Gain of electrons.
Oxidizing agent: Causes oxidation.
Reducing agent: Causes reduction.
3.2. Electrochemical Cells
Galvanic Cell: Spontaneous redox reaction generates electricity.
Example: Daniel Cell
Electrolytic Cell: Electrical energy is used to drive a non-spontaneous reaction.
Example: Electrolysis of water.
3.3. Nernst Equation
Relates the cell potential to the concentration of ions.
𝐸
𝐸
=
0
−
𝑛
0.0591
log
𝐶
[
𝑟
]
𝑒
𝑑
𝐶
[
𝑜
]
𝑥
E=E
0
−
n
0.0591
log
[C]
ox
[C]
red
3.4. Conductance
Molar Conductivity: Conductance of 1 mole of solute in a solution.
Specific Conductivity: Conductance of a solution with unit length and area.
Equivalent Conductance: Conductance of a solution when 1 equivalent of solute is
dissolved.
Unit 4: Chemical Kinetics
4.1. Rate of Reaction
Rate: Change in concentration of reactant or product per unit time.
Rate
=
Δ
𝐶
[
𝑡
Δ
Rate=
Δt
Δ[C]
4.2. Rate Law
Rate law equation:
Rate
𝑘
=
𝐴
[
𝑚
]
𝐵
[
𝑛
]
Rate=k[A]
m
[B]
n
𝑘
, where
k is the rate constant.
4.3. Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction
Concentration: Higher concentration → faster reaction.
Temperature: Higher temperature → faster reaction (Arrhenius equation).
Catalysts: Speed up reactions without being consumed.
4.4. Activation Energy (Ea)
Minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.
4.5. Order of Reaction
The sum of the exponents in the rate law equation.
First-order, second-order, zero-order reactions.
4.6. Integrated Rate Equations
For different orders of reactions, these equations give concentration vs. time
relationships.
Unit 5: Surface Chemistry
5.1. Adsorption
Physical Adsorption: Weak van der Waals forces.
Chemical Adsorption: Chemical bonds form.
5.2. Catalysis
Homogeneous Catalysis: Catalyst and reactants are in the same phase.
Heterogeneous Catalysis: Catalyst is in a different phase.
5.3. Colloids
Types of Colloids: Sols, Gels, Emulsions, Foams.
Tyndall Effect: Scattering of light by colloidal particles.
Unit 6: General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements
6.1. Methods of Extraction
Crushing and Grinding: To break down ore.
Froth Floatation: Used for sulphide ores.
Leaching: Dissolving the ore in a suitable solvent.
6.2. Refining
Purification of extracted metals (e.g., electrolytic refining, distillation).
Unit 7: p-Block Elements
7.1. Group 15 Elements (Nitrogen Family)
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth.
Oxidation states, allotropes (e.g., Nitrogen’s dinitrogen (N₂), Phosphorus’s white,
red, and black forms).
7.2. Group 16 Elements (Oxygen Family)
Oxygen, Sulfur, Selenium, Tellurium, Polonium.
Oxygen as a strong oxidizing agent.
7.3. Group 17 Elements (Halogens)
Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Astatine.
Properties: High electronegativity, reactivity.
7.4. Group 18 Elements (Noble Gases)
Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon.
Inert, stable gases.
Unit 8: d-Block Elements
8.1. Properties of Transition Elements
Exhibit variable oxidation states.
Formation of colored compounds.
High melting points and hardness.
8.2. Coordination Compounds
Ligand: Molecule or ion that binds to the central metal atom.
Coordination Number: Number of ligands attached to the metal.
Werner’s Theory: Explains the formation of coordination compounds.
Unit 9: Coordination Chemistry and Organometallics
9.1. Bonding in Coordination Compounds
Valence Bond Theory: Describes bonding by hybridization of metal orbitals.
Crystal Field Theory: Describes how metal-ligand interactions affect the electronic
structure.
9.2. Organometallic Compounds
Compounds containing metal-carbon bonds.
Examples: Ferrocene, Methyl lithium.
Unit 10: Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
10.1. Nomenclature and Properties
Haloalkanes: Alkyl groups attached to halogen.
Haloarenes: Aromatic ring attached to halogen.
Reactions: Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, and addition.
Unit 11: Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
11.1. Alcohols
Classification: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary.
Properties: Hydrophilicity, hydrogen bonding.
Preparation: From alkenes, carbonyl compounds.
11.2. Phenols
Hydroxyl group attached to an aromatic ring.
Reactions: Electrophilic substitution.
11.3. Ethers
Structure: Oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl groups.
Reactions: Nucleophilic substitution.
Unit 12: Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
12.1. Aldehydes and Ketones
Nomenclature: -al for aldehydes, -one for ketones.
Reactions: Nucleophilic addition (e.g., Grignard reagent).
12.2. Carboxylic Acids
Acidity: Carboxyl group (-COOH).
Reactions: Esterification, decarboxylation.
Unit 13: Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen
13.1. Amines
Structure: Derivatives of ammonia.
Classification: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary.
Reactions: Nucleophilic substitution.
13.2. Cyanides and Isocyanides
Compounds with C≡N group.
Unit 14: Biomolecules
14.1. Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides: Glucose, Fructose.
Disaccharides: Sucrose, Lactose.
Polysaccharides: Starch, Cellulose.
14.2. Proteins
Amino Acids: Building blocks of proteins.
Peptide Bonds: Link amino acids together.
14.3. Enzymes
Biological catalysts.
Lock and Key Model.
Unit 15: Polymers
15.1. Types of Polymers
Addition Polymers: No by-products (e.g., Polyethylene).
Condensation Polymers: By-products (e.g., Nylon, Teflon).
15.2. Biodegradable Polymers
Polymers that can be broken down by microorganisms.
Unit 16: Chemistry in Everyday Life
16.1. Chemicals in Medicines
Antibiotics: Penicillin, Streptomycin.
Analgesics: Paracetamol, Aspirin.
16.2. Food Additives
Preservatives, Flavor enhancers, Antioxidants.
This is a quick summary of each chapter. Let me know if you need further details on
any topic!
