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1 1 Explain the concept of a number system.

A number system is a way of representing and expressing numbers using a set of symbols and rules. It
defines how numbers are written, stored, and processed in mathematical and computational systems. The
most common number systems include:

1. Decimal (Base 10) – Uses digits 0-9 (e.g., 125, 3.14).

2. Binary (Base 2) – Uses only 0 and 1, commonly used in computers.
3. Octal (Base 8) – Uses digits 0-7, sometimes used in computing.
4. Hexadecimal (Base 16) – Uses digits 0-9 and letters A-F, often used in programming

2 Define and differentiate between the following number systems:

a) Binary
b) Octal
c) Hexadecimal

3 What is the base (or radix) of Binary, Decimal, Octal, and Hexadecimal number systems?

REPEAT

2 1 What are the three main components of a binary floating-point representation? Briefly explain the role of
each.

 Sign Bit

 Represents the sign of the number.

 0 for positive numbers, 1 for negative numbers.

 Exponent

 Stores the power of 2 by which the fraction (mantissa) is multiplied.

 Helps in representing very large or very small numbers efficiently.

 Mantissa (Significand/Fraction)

 Holds the significant digits of the number.

 Determines the precision of the floating-point value.
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2 Convert (25)₁₀ to binary.

1. 25 ÷ 2 = 12, remainder 1
2. 12 ÷ 2 = 6, remainder 0
3. 6 ÷ 2 = 3, remainder 0
4. 3 ÷ 2 = 1, remainder 1
5. 1 ÷ 2 = 0, remainder 1

Now, read the remainders from bottom to top:

(25)₁₀ = (11001)₂
3 Perform the binary addition of 1011₂ + 1101₂.

3 1) What is the difference between unsigned and signed binary representation?

 Unsigned binary is used when only non-negative values are needed.

 Signed binary (e.g., Two’s Complement) is used to handle both positive and negative values in
computing.

2) What are the key advantages of using 2’s complement over 1’s complement?

 Unique Representation of Zero

 1’s Complement has two representations of zero (0000 and 1111 in 4-bit).
 2’s Complement has only one representation of zero (0000 in 4-bit), avoiding ambiguity.

 Easier Arithmetic Operations

 In 2’s Complement, addition and subtraction follow the same binary rules without needing special
adjustments for negative numbers.
 In 1’s Complement, extra steps are required to handle end-around carry.

 No Need for End-Around Carry

 1’s Complement requires an additional step to add the carry bit after addition.
 2’s Complement directly provides the correct result without this extra step.

 Simplifies Hardware Design

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 Most modern processors use 2’s Complement because it simplifies ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
design, reducing complexity and increasing efficiency.

3 What is the most significant bit (MSB) and least significant bit (LSB) in a binary number?

 Most Significant Bit (MSB)

 The leftmost bit in a binary number.

 It has the highest place value (largest weight).
 In signed binary numbers, the MSB is often used as the sign bit (0 for positive, 1 for negative).

 Least Significant Bit (LSB)

 The rightmost bit in a binary number.

 It has the lowest place value (smallest weight).
 It determines whether a number is even or odd (if LSB = 0, the number is even; if LSB = 1, the
number is odd).

4 1) How does extended ASCII differ from standard ASCII?

ASCII (pronounced AS-key) stands for the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange. Today, the ASCII character set is by far the most
commonly used in computers of all types. Tabic 4A.3 shows the 128 ASCII
codes. ASCII is an eight-bit code that specifics characters for values from
0 to 127.

Extended ASCII- Extended ASCII is an eight-bit code that specifies the

characters for values from 128 to 255. The first 40 symbols represent
pronunciation and special punctuation. The remaining symbols are graphic
symbols.
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2) List the key differences between ASCII and Unicode.

3) Define a bit, byte, and nibble in terms of data storage units.

5 1) What is Von Neumann architecture, and what are its main components?

Von Neumann Architecture

The Von Neumann architecture is a computer design model proposed by John von Neumann in 1945. It
is the foundation of most modern computers and follows the concept of a stored-program computer,
where both data and instructions are stored in the same memory.
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Main Components of Von Neumann Architecture

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

1. Performs arithmetic and logical operations.

2. Contains:
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Handles calculations and logical decisions.
2. Control Unit (CU): Directs the execution of instructions.

Memory (RAM)

1. Stores both instructions and data in a single space.

2. Memory is directly accessible by the CPU.

Input/Output (I/O) Devices

1. Input devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse) provide data to the system.

2. Output devices (e.g., monitor, printer) display processed results.

System Bus

1. Transfers data between components.

2. Includes:

1. Data Bus: Transfers actual data.

2. Address Bus: Carries memory addresses.
3. Control Bus: Sends control signals.

2) What is EPIC Architecture?

Definition:
EPIC is a processor architecture designed to execute multiple instructions in parallel by relying on
compiler-based instruction scheduling rather than dynamic scheduling by hardware.

Key Features:

1. Uses explicit parallelism, where the compiler determines instruction dependencies.

2. Reduces hardware complexity compared to superscalar architectures.
3. Improves performance by enabling instruction-level parallelism (ILP).

Example:
Intel’s Itanium processors use EPIC architecture.
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3) What is VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word) and how does it improve CPU performance?

Definition:
VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word) is a CPU architecture that processes multiple operations in a single
long instruction. Instead of relying on hardware to schedule instructions dynamically, the compiler
schedules instructions at compile time to maximize parallel execution.

How It Improves CPU Performance:

1. Increases Parallelism – Executes multiple operations simultaneously, enhancing speed.

2. Reduces Hardware Complexity – No need for complex scheduling and dependency-checking
circuits.
3. Optimized Execution – The compiler arranges instructions efficiently, reducing idle CPU cycles.

6 1) What is a register? name at least two components in the LMC that meet the qualifications for a register?

A register is a small, high-speed storage location within the CPU used to hold data temporarily during
processing. Registers store instructions, addresses, or intermediate results for quick access.

Two Registers in the LMC (Little Man Computer) Model:

1. Accumulator (ACC) – Stores the result of arithmetic and logical operations.

2. Program Counter (PC) – Holds the address of the next instruction to be executed.

2) What does CU stand for? What is its corresponding LMC component?

CU (Control Unit)

 Stands for: Control Unit

 LMC Equivalent: The Instruction Counter (Control Unit in LMC manages instruction
execution).

3) What does ALU stand for? What is its corresponding component in the Little Man Computer?

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Stands for: Arithmetic Logic Unit

 LMC Equivalent: The Accumulator (performs arithmetic operations in LMC).
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7 1) Write a note on Boolean logic instructions.

Boolean Logic Instructions

 Boolean logic instructions perform logical operations like AND, OR, NOT, XOR on binary values.
 They are fundamental in decision-making, comparisons, and bitwise manipulations.
 Used in CPUs for operations such as conditional execution and masking bits in registers.

2) Which Little Man Computer instructions would be classified as data movement instructions?

LMC Data Movement Instructions

 IN (Input) – Accepts user input and stores it in the accumulator.

 OUT (Output) – Displays the value stored in the accumulator.
 STA (Store) – Stores the value from the accumulator into memory.
 LDA (Load) – Loads a value from memory into the accumulator.

3 ) What operations would you expect the arithmetic class of instructions to perform?

Arithmetic Class of Instructions

 These instructions perform mathematical operations such as:

o Addition (ADD) – Adds a value to the accumulator.
o Subtraction (SUB) – Subtracts a value from the accumulator.
o Multiplication and Division (in advanced models, not LMC).
 Used for calculations and data processing in computing.

8 1) Explain steps in the fetch execute cycle.

Steps in the Fetch-Execute Cycle

The fetch-execute cycle is the process by which a CPU retrieves and executes instructions from memory.
It consists of three main steps:

Fetch

1. The Program Counter (PC) holds the address of the next instruction.
2. The Control Unit (CU) fetches the instruction from memory into the Instruction Register
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(IR).
3. The PC is incremented to point to the next instruction.

Decode

1. The Control Unit decodes the instruction in the IR to determine what action to perform.
2. The CPU identifies whether the instruction involves arithmetic, logic, or data movement.

Execute

1. The CPU carries out the instruction using the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), registers, or
memory.
2. The result is stored in the Accumulator (ACC) or memory, if needed.
3. The cycle repeats for the next instruction.

2) What are the core operations performed in a CPU at the fetch execute cycle?

Core Operations in the Fetch-Execute Cycle

The CPU performs the following core operations:

 Fetching: Retrieving instructions from memory.

 Decoding: Interpreting the instruction.
 Executing: Performing arithmetic, logic, or data transfer.
 Storing: Writing results back to memory or registers.

3) What are the key registers in the instruction cycle?

Key Registers in the Instruction Cycle

 Program Counter (PC) – Holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched.
 Instruction Register (IR) – Stores the fetched instruction.
 Memory Address Register (MAR) – Holds the memory address to fetch or store data.
 Memory Data Register (MDR) – Temporarily holds data fetched from or written to memory.
 Accumulator (ACC) – Stores intermediate and final results of arithmetic or logic operations.
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PART B

1A Explain the Decimal, Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal number systems with examples.
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· Decimal Number System (Base-10)

 · Uses 10 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
 Most commonly used in daily life.

· Binary Number System (Base-2)

 · Uses only two digits: 0 and 1.

 Used in computers and digital systems.

​ .

· Octal Number System (Base-8)

 · Uses eight digits: 0 to 7.

 Often used in computing as a shorthand for binary.

Hexadecimal Number System (Base-16)

 · Uses 16 symbols: 0–9 and A–F (where A = 10, B = 11, ..., F = 15).
 Used in programming and memory addressing.

1B Explain Decimal to Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal conversion with examples.

1. Decimal to Binary Conversion (Base-10 to Base-2)

 Divide the decimal number by 2.

 Record the remainder.
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 Continue dividing until the quotient is 0.

 Read the remainders in reverse order.

Example: Convert 25₁₀ to Binary.

CopyEdit
25 ÷ 2 = 12, remainder = 1
12 ÷ 2 = 6, remainder = 0
6 ÷ 2 = 3, remainder = 0
3 ÷ 2 = 1, remainder = 1
1 ÷ 2 = 0, remainder = 1

Answer: 25₁₀ = 11001₂

2. Decimal to Octal Conversion (Base-10 to Base-8)

 Divide the decimal number by 8.

 Record the remainder.
 Continue dividing until the quotient is 0.
 Read the remainders in reverse order.

Example: Convert 125₁₀ to Octal.

CopyEdit
125 ÷ 8 = 15, remainder = 5
15 ÷ 8 = 1, remainder = 7
1 ÷ 8 = 0, remainder = 1

Answer: 125₁₀ = 175₈

3. Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion (Base-10 to Base-16)

 Divide the decimal number by 16.

 Record the remainder.
 Continue dividing until the quotient is 0.
 Read the remainders in reverse order.
 If the remainder is 10–15, replace it with A–F.

Example: Convert 254₁₀ to Hexadecimal.

254 ÷ 16 = 15, remainder = 14 (E) 15 ÷ 16 = 0, remainder = 15 (F)

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Answer: 254₁₀ = FE₁₆

2A Explain the Binary to Decimal, Octal, and Hexadecimal conversion methods with examples.

1. Binary to Decimal Conversion (Base-2 to Base-10)

 Multiply each binary digit by 2n2^n2n, where nnn is its position from the right
(starting at 0).
 Sum the results.

Example: Convert 1011₂ to Decimal.

2. Binary to Octal Conversion (Base-2 to Base-8)

 Group binary digits into sets of three from the right.

 Convert each group to its octal equivalent.

Example: Convert 101101₂ to Octal.

1. Group into three digits: 101 101

2. Convert each group:

o 101₂ = 5₈
o 101₂ = 5₈

3. Answer: 101101₂ = 55₈

3. Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion (Base-2 to Base-16)

 Group binary digits into sets of four from the right.

 Convert each group to its hexadecimal equivalent.
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Example: Convert 11011011₂ to Hexadecimal.

1. Group into four digits: 1101 1011

2. Convert each group:

o 1101₂ = D₁₆
o 1011₂ = B₁₆

3. Answer: 11011011₂ = DB₁₆

2B Explain the importance of number base conversions in computing with real-world

applications.

Importance of Number Base Conversions in Computing

Number base conversions are essential in computing because different systems and
hardware components use different number representations. Converting between bases
helps in efficient data processing, storage, and communication.

Real-World Applications of Number Base Conversions

Computer Architecture & Digital Electronics

1. Computers use the binary (base-2) system internally for processing.

2. Octal (base-8) and Hexadecimal (base-16) are used for memory
addressing, as they are shorthand for binary.
3. Example: Hexadecimal addresses (e.g., 0x1F4A) simplify memory
references instead of long binary numbers.

Programming & Software Development

1. Programmers often use hexadecimal for defining colors in web design

(#FF5733 for an orange shade).
2. Binary and hexadecimal values are crucial in low-level programming
(e.g., machine code, assembly language).
3. Example: In bitwise operations, binary numbers are manipulated for
performance optimizations.

Networking & Communication

1. IP addresses in IPv4 use decimal notation (e.g., 192.168.1.1), while IPv6

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uses hexadecimal (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334).

2. Binary and hexadecimal are used in data transmission, encryption, and
error detection (e.g., checksum calculations).

Storage & Data Representation

1. File sizes are represented in bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, etc., which

are powers of 2 (1 KB = 1024 bytes).
2. Character encoding standards like ASCII and Unicode use binary to
represent text characters.

Embedded Systems & Microcontrollers

1. Devices like smartphones, IoT devices, and industrial controllers use

binary operations for real-time processing.
2. Example: A microcontroller storing sensor data may use hexadecimal
values to optimize memory usage.

3A Compare Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal Number Systems in terms of efficiency in

computing.
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3B Explain the role of Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal systems in computer hardware design
with examples.

1. Binary System in Hardware Design

Role:

 Binary is the fundamental language of computers.

 It is used in logic gates, registers, microprocessors, and memory storage.

Example:

 Logic Gates (AND, OR, NOT) operate using binary inputs (0 and 1).
 A 1-bit full adder in a CPU adds two binary numbers using circuits.

2. Octal System in Hardware Design

Role:

 Used in grouping binary numbers for easier human readability.

 Used in old computing systems and microprocessor programming.

Example:

 File permissions in UNIX/Linux are represented using octal (e.g., chmod 755
means rwxr-xr-x).
 In some early microcontrollers, octal was used for compact data
representation.

3. Hexadecimal System in Hardware Design

Role:

 Used for memory addressing, color coding, and debugging.

 More compact than binary, reducing complexity in hardware design.
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Example:

 Memory Addresses: RAM and ROM addresses are typically in hexadecimal

(e.g., 0x3F2A).
 Color Codes in Graphics: RGB color values use hexadecimal (e.g., #FF5733
for an orange shade).
 Assembly Language & Machine Code: Instructions in assembly programming
use hexadecimal opcodes (e.g., MOV A, #0x1F).

1A Explain the three main fields in the binary floating-point representation: the sign bit,
10 mantissa, and exponent. Provide an example to illustrate their roles.
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1B Explain the steps for binary-to-decimal conversion with an example.

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2A What are the key differences between human representation of information and computer
representation?
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2B Explain the concept of normalizing binary numbers with an example.

3A Convert the fractional number (-5/16) into its binary floating-point representation using
normalization.
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3B Explain the decimal-to-binary and binary-to-decimal conversion methods with step-by-step

examples.
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1A What is 1’s complement representation? Explain with an example.

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1B Discuss the difference between signed and unsigned binary number representations with
examples.
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2A What is 2’s complement representation? Explain its advantages over 1’s complement.
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2B Explain the representation of unsigned binary numbers with an example.

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3A Describe the sign-magnitude representation of binary numbers with an example.

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3B Convert -27 to binary using sign-magnitude, 1’s complement, and 2’s complement forms.
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1A Explain the concepts of bit, byte, nibble, and kilobyte, including their significance in data
12 storage.
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1B Describe the ASCII encoding system and its role in representing characters in a computer
system.

2A Define data storage units such as bit, byte, and kilobyte.

Repeat
2B List the advantages and limitations of ASCII.
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3A Discuss the differences between binary and decimal interpretations of kilobyte, megabyte,
and gigabyte.
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3B What is Unicode, and how is it different from ASCII?

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1A What is the difference between VLIW and EPIC architecture?

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1B Discuss how the EPIC architecture by Intel addresses data and control dependencies in
program execution and write the key difference between traditional and modern architecture.
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2A Explain how the von Neumann architecture’s characteristics are reflected in modern CPU.
Discuss the evolution of these architectures while preserving the integrity of von Neumann's
principles.
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3A Evaluate the key differences between traditional CPU architectures. Discuss how each
approach affects program execution and performance.
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1 A What is the function of an accumulator in a CPU, and how does it compare to the calculator
14 in the Little Man Computer (LMC)?
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1B Explain the role of registers in a CPU and how they differ from memory.
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2A Describe the types of data that registers can hold in a computer and give examples of
different kinds of registers.

OR
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3A Explain the system block diagram of the CPU.

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OR
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1A Show an instruction format that could be used to move data or perform arithmetic between
15 two registers. Assume that the instruction is 32 bits wide and that the computer has sixteen
general-purpose data registers. If the opcode uses 8 bits, how many bits are spare, available for
other purposes, such as special addressing techniques?
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1B Explain any 4 commonly used assembly instructions .

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OR
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2A Explain exactly what would occur if a processor tried to execute the following pair of
instructions: LOAD L L: DATA 1

OR
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2B Explain the difference between shift and rotate instructions.

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OR
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3A Assume that memory cell 50 contains a 4 and label L is equivalent to memory location 50.
What value does each of the following LOAD instructions load into register R?
a. LOAD 50
b. LOAD 4
c. LOADL
d. LOAD L+1 (Assume that this is legal)
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OR
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1 A Explain CPU fetch execute cycle for ADD instruction

16
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2A Explain CPU fetch execute cycle for STORE instruction.

3A Explain CPU fetch execute cycle for LOAD instruction.

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