Study on Effects Liquid Cooling in Battery Thermal

Management Systems in comparison to Air Cooling

Electric Vehicles
Dr. L J Sudev, Pranav R Kaushik, Shashanka K M, Gul Mohammed Shahdab, Shree Vishnu N

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Professor & COE of VVCE, Mysore

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Student of of VVCE, Mysore
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Student of of VVCE, Mysore
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Student of of VVCE, Mysore
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Student of of VVCE, Mysore

Abstract- The thermal management of lithium-ion batteries is crucial for maintaining performance, safety, and longevity,
especially in high-demand applications like electric vehicles (EVs). This paper explores the effectiveness of liquid cooling
systems in managing battery temperatures compared to conventional air cooling methods. It highlights the advantages of liquid
cooling in maintaining optimal temperature ranges, reducing temperature fluctuations, and preventing overheating under
conditions of rapid charging and discharging. Experimental data and literature demonstrate that liquid cooling provides
superior heat dissipation and temperature uniformity across battery cells, which significantly enhances battery life and
performance. As the demand for efficient energy storage solutions grows, the findings underscore the potential of liquid
cooling systems as a more reliable and effective thermal management solution for lithium-ion batteries in EVs.
Keywords Thermal runaway, Liquid Cooling, Hybrid Cooling, Active Cooling, Passive Cooling.

1. Introduction

As the global population continues to rise, so does the where they overheat and could potentially catch fire. This
demand for transportation. More people need to move risk is especially high during high-power activities such as
around for daily activities, work, and business, which puts fast charging or long-distance driving, which place a heavy
a growing strain on our transportation systems. This load on the battery. As the demand for faster charging
increase in demand also drives up the consumption of technology grows, these safety concerns become even
fossil fuels, which not only deplete over time but also more critical.
harm the environment through greenhouse gas emissions
To ensure that electric vehicles remain a safe and
and air pollutants. With concerns over climate change and
sustainable alternative to traditional combustion engine
the depletion of natural resources, electric vehicles (EVs)
vehicles, improving battery design and thermal
have emerged as a promising solution. EVs, powered
management is crucial. Advances in battery technology
primarily by lithium-ion batteries, have the potential to
and better cooling systems can help prevent overheating
reduce pollution, especially in urban areas where vehicle
and make EVs safer for everyday use. As these challenges
emissions significantly impact air quality.
are addressed, electric vehicles will become an even more
However, the shift to EVs brings its own set of challenges, viable solution to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and
particularly regarding battery safety. Lithium-ion batteries, create a more sustainable transportation future.
while efficient, are prone to thermal runaway, a condition
2. Literature review
“Due to the lack of thermal management, increasing
temperature will accelerate the chemical reactions and the
degradation and ageing processes. In the same way, low
temperature will degrade the battery's capacity and energy
density. Manufacturers usually prefer using large-sized
format LIB, which is more susceptible to adverse effects. In
addition to this, temperature variances between modules
within a pack can affect the electrical balance, which harms
the battery pack performance. When a battery has a high‐
rates capability and higher specific energy, it generates a
tremendous amount of heat, resulting in a thermal runaway” Fig 1.2
[1]
Operation Under Uniform Temperature : “Besides
Qirr = I2Ri working efficiently at low and high temperatures, a
“where Qirr is an irreversible heat production that is always uniform distribution of temperature greatly impacts the
exothermic, I is current, and Ri represents the cell's internal battery performance. Temperatures of cells, modules,
resistance, which is the sum of the cell's diffusion, ohmic, and packs need to be evaluated to determine
and activation polarisation resistances”. [1] temperature uniformity. Different electrochemical
performances and charging or discharging behaviors
could be caused by the maldistribution of temperature
inside the cell, module, or pack. As the components
inside the cell have various thermal physical
properties and geometric characterization, the heat
transfer in each direction and heat generation in each
component differ significantly, causing a temperature
gradient to form inside the cell. The Arrhenius
law states that as the temperature rises, the
electrochemical reaction rate increases
exponentially.” [1]
“During the fast charging process of the battery, due to
Fig 1.1. the increase of the charging current and the internal
resistance of the charging, the battery temperature will
Operation Under High Temperature: “In addition to reducing
rise rapidly during the fast charging process. If not
battery life and destroying capacity, operating at high-
controlled, the temperature of the power battery will
temperatures also threatens the entire power system's safety.
soon exceed the maximum allowable temperature limit,
Extreme temperatures could create catastrophic thermal
which will rapidly reduce the charging capacity or enter
runaway (TR) issues through the overheated batteries'
the fault protection mode, unable to charge. At the same
positive feedback. The problem of TR is characterized by the
time, the rise of the battery temperature will break
temperature and the SEI decomposes at approximately 90 ∼
maximum temperature, onset temperature, and trigger
through the allowable temperature range, It’s also
brings potential fire or explosion hazards to the power
120°C. So, as the temperature increases, electrolyte, negative
battery. Therefore, it is necessary to strictly control the
and positive materials along with the other side reactions
battery temperature during the fast charging process in
start the decomposition. Finally, initiating the redox
the design of the battery management system, which
reactions between anode and cathode at temperatures
requires targeted design and development of the
exceeding the separator melting point, resulting in a huge
power battery thermal management system during the
quantity of heat being released. Several characteristics,
fast charging process.” [2]
including various heat dissipation conditions and heating
area, state of charge (SOC), and heating power influence the
TR behaviors”. [1]

Battery Type of Important Findings

Type Study
LIB with Experime ΔT and Tmax were
cylindrica maintained below 4 and
 l cell ntal 40°C, respectively, during Qr = Qj + Qs + QP + Qt [2]
cycling tests.
“The heat generated during battery charging and discharging
18,650 Experime Increasing the cooling can be expressed by the following formula”:
2
Li-ion ntal and water flow rate in a Qt = Qr’ + I Re + Qs [2]
cylindrica numerical certain range has a
l cells significant effect on
improving the
temperature uniformity
and lowering the Tmax of
the battery module, but
when the flow rate
increases beyond a certain
level, improving the
cooling effect cannot be
observed.
Prismatic Experime When the mass flow rate
lithium- ntal and at 0.21 kg/s, the inlet
ion numerical temperature was 18°C,
battery and the 70 mm width of
cell the cooling plate, the
optimum cooling
performance was
achieved.
Prismatic Numerica The 25 °C cooling inlet
LiFePO4 b l temperature allowed the
attery battery module to be [2] Fig 2.1. & Fig 2.2.
maintained within the
“Parallel liquid cooling system with mini-channels for
range of 25 - 40°C, at this
prismatic battery modules, which enhanced cooling
time the standard
efficiency by optimizing the channel depth and width.” [3]
deviation of temperature
is 0.34°C and the average “A three-compartment cooling structure with a cooling plate
temperature was 26.20°C. to maintain the temperature at safe levels during fast
charging, specifically for 1C, 3C, and 5C rates.” [3]
20 Ah Experime Optimizing cooling
LIFePO4 ntal and parameters maintained “A three-sided cold plate to reduce temperature and prevent
battery numerical temperature non- thermal runaway during ultra-fast charging. Their design
uniformity showed a temperature drop from 58 °C to 49 °C at 4C
and Tmax below 4°C charging.” [3]
and 40°C,
respectively, for 50 V
battery packs.
LIB Experime Li-ion battery pack's
ntal and ΔT and Tmax lowered
numerical efficiently by raising the
channel count; however,
this ability was restricted.
[1] Experimental Setup [4]:

Battery Heat Generation Model:

“From the electrochemical point of view, the heat generated
by lithium ion battery during charging and discharging
mainly consists of four parts, including reaction heat is Q r,
Joule heat of ohms internal resistance is Q J, polarization heat
is Qs, inside reaction heat is QP,. The actual heat output of the
lithium-ion battery is Qt, and the formula is as follows”:
Fig 4.1.
Fig 4.3. Average temperature of cells in battery module with
“With the increase of flow rate, the maximum temperature serial/parallel cooling at 80 ml/min.
decreases by 5.08℃, 3.18℃, 2.32℃, 1.53℃ and 0.52℃,
and the temperature difference decreases by 3.7 ℃, 2.52 ℃, “Figure (4.4) shows comparisons of experimental and
1.92℃, 1.25℃ and 0.33℃.” [4] simulated maximum temperature of the battery module with
serial/parallel cooling under the flow rate of 80ml/min at 3C
and ambient temperature of 30℃. The maximum error
between the simulation and the experiment is 2.99%, which
proves that the simulation agrees well with the experiment
and the method used in the simulation is reasonable.
Compared with Figure (4.5) and Figure (4.6), the trend of
maximum temperature curve according to time for parallel
cooling is to increase before 500s, then fluctuate within a
certain range. It shows that parallel cooling takes less time to
stabilize the temperature of the battery module than serial
cooling, which greatly reduces the impact of excessive
temperature fluctuation on the battery module.”[4]

[4]
Fig 4.2. Maximum temperature and temperature uniformity
of battery module at different flow rates.
Effect of series/parallel cooling on temperature field of the
battery module:
“Figure (4.3.) describes the average temperature variation of
cells in battery module with serial/parallel cooling at 80
ml/min, where the location of batteries in the module is
shown in Figure (4.5). For the serial cooling, the lowest
average temperature of the first row is 35℃, and the highest
average temperature of the fifth row is 43.92℃. It can be
clearly seen from the Figure (4.5) that the temperature Fig 4.4. Comparison of experimental and simulated
difference between the same rows is smaller, and that maximum temperature of battery module with serial cooling
between different rows is larger. The average temperature of at 3C and ambient temperature of 30℃.
each row with the parallel cooling differs greatly from that of
the serial cooling, which are 1.13℃, 1.11℃, 1.52℃, 1.09℃ “The experimental investigation yielded comprehensive data
and 1.1℃ respectively. The temperature uniformity of regarding the performance of the distilled water-cooling
parallel cooling is much better than that of serial cooling, system. Flow rate measurements conducted at various pump
which is mainly due to parallel cooling taking away the heat speeds revealed a consistent relationship between pump
generated by batteries faster.” [4] velocity and coolant flow, with higher pump speeds
correlating to increased flow rates. Specifically, the flow rate
ranged from 6.8 to 8.3 litters per minute across the tested
pump speed range of 1000 to 3000 RPM, indicating the
system's capability to deliver a steady flow of coolant.
Temperature monitoring at the inlet and outlet of the radiator
demonstrated effective heat dissipation, with an average “Performance Analysis of Liquid Cooling Designs for
temperature reduction of 7°C observed across the cooling Cylindrical Lithium-Ion Batteries
system under typical operating conditions. Furthermore, Yates et al. (2019) investigate two liquid cooling designs
thermal imaging analysis provided visual confirmation of mini-channel cooling cylinder (MCC) and channel-cooled
uniform cooling distribution across the radiator surface, heat sink (CCHS) to manage heat in lithium-ion batteries.
validating the system's efficiency in dissipating heat. Overall, The study explores the impacts of channel configuration,
the results underscore the viability of the distilled water- hole diameter, mass flow rate, and inlet position on thermal
cooling system in effectively regulating component performance. Results show that both designs keep battery
temperatures and maintaining thermal stability in automotive temperature within the ideal range (under 313 K) and limit
and industrial applications.” [4] temperature variations to less than 3.15 K. Although the
MCC provides better temperature control, it has a higher
“The study evaluates the influence of coolant flow rate and
manufacturing complexity compared to CCHS. This analysis
cooling configurations (serial and parallel) on the
highlights that mini-channel cooling optimally balances
temperature control of battery modules. Findings indicate
temperature reduction and uniformity, thus enhancing battery
that increasing coolant flow improves cooling effectiveness
safety and life for electric vehicles, despite higher costs
up to a limit; beyond this, added flow yields minimal benefit.
associated with MCC (Yates et al., 2019)” [2]
Parallel cooling enhances temperature uniformity compared
to serial cooling. The modular BTMS design, composed of
aluminium cooling modules and silicon interfaces, offers
scalability for mass production, enabling flexible
configurations suitable for industrial applications. This
research demonstrates that modular BTMS structures can
optimize temperature control and extend battery life, which
is crucial for electric vehicle applications (Wang et al.,
2020)” [4]

Fig. 2.3. The final design of the CCHS, showing the top,
side, front view and an isometric view. Inlet tube dimensions
are shown along with fluid domain locations, and the
increased fluid tube diameters.
Fig. 4.5. Temperature distribution of the battery module with
serial cooling at 3C and ambient temperature 30℃ [4] “Hybrid Liquid Cooling Plate for Thermal Management of
Lithium-Ion Batteries
Akbarzadeh et al. (2021) propose a hybrid liquid cooling
plate (LCP) integrated with phase change material (PCM) to
address the thermal management needs of lithium-ion
batteries in electric vehicles. This hybrid LCP offers both
active and passive cooling, reducing energy use by 30%
compared to traditional aluminium LCPs. The PCM helps
stabilize battery temperature during vehicle inactivity, while
the liquid cooling maintains optimal temperatures during
operation. The lightweight design is 36% lighter than
conventional plates, enhancing energy efficiency.
Experimental results verify the hybrid LCP’s potential in
lowering maximum temperatures and improving temperature
uniformity, suggesting a feasible solution for extended
battery life in electric vehicles (Akbarzadeh et al., 2021)” [3]

Fig. 4.6 Temperature distribution of the battery module with

parallel cooling at 3C and ambient temperature 30℃
 Fig. 5.1. Temperature uniformity contours of the single LiC
cell using liquid-based TMS.
“Yang et al. (2023): This paper investigates liquid-cooling
for lithium-ion battery packs using the Field Synergy
Principle to enhance cooling efficiency and uniformity in
electric vehicles. The study emphasizes the impact of coolant
channel configurations on thermal performance, noting that
channels with improved field synergy between temperature
Fig. 3.1. Temperature distribution on the cooling plate and flow fields facilitate better heat dissipation. Comparative
surface at the end of the first cooling cycle. analysis shows that an optimized channel design can reduce
temperature gradient within the pack and prevent hotspots,
“Tan et al. (2021): This study explores a direct liquid cooling
essential for extending battery life and safety. Findings
(DLC) system for lithium-ion battery packs, focusing on
suggest that effective liquid cooling solutions need balanced
hydrofluoroether (HFE-6120) as the coolant for high-power
channel designs to align thermal and hydrodynamic fields,
applications like electric vehicles. Through computational
thereby increasing the system's cooling capacity without
fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, the authors identify key
excess power draw.”
design optimizations that improve cooling efficiency, such as
a partial height channel design and multilayer structure. “Liu et al. (2023) provide a comprehensive review on the
These modifications enhance energy density by up to 20.3% advances and future directions of liquid cooling thermal
and reduce power consumption by 95.3% over baseline management systems for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The
designs. Additionally, a cross-flow configuration achieves a study highlights the need for effective battery thermal
more uniform temperature distribution, reducing temperature management systems (BTMS) due to LIBs' sensitivity to
differences by 18.1%. The study concludes that a direct temperature fluctuations, which can affect their performance,
immersion approach, while effective in reducing structural safety, and lifespan. Liquid cooling is identified as a superior
complexity, requires careful management of coolant method compared to air cooling and phase change materials
properties to minimize leakage and address power (PCMs) due to its high efficiency and ability to maintain
consumption” [4] battery temperature within an optimal range. The authors
categorize liquid cooling into indirect and direct systems,
examining each for benefits and challenges. Indirect cooling,
typically employing cooling plates, prevents direct coolant
contact with batteries, while direct immersion cooling offers
enhanced heat transfer but requires non-conductive coolants.
Composite cooling approaches that combine liquid cooling
with air or PCMs are also discussed for improved thermal
Fig. 4.1. Direct liquid cooling and Air cooling stability and safety. The paper concludes with
recommendations for enhanced BTMS design, including
“Karimi et al. (2020): This research presents an optimized optimizing coolant types and channel configurations, and
liquid cooling system for lithium-ion capacitors (LiCs) with underscores the importance of integrating preheating and
high power density, relevant to EV thermal management. thermal runaway protection mechanisms in BTMS for
Using coiled channels within cooling plates, the system electric vehicles.” [7]
enhances heat dissipation while maintaining compactness
and low power requirements. The study experimentally
examines how factors like coolant flow rate and inlet
temperature affect temperature control, identifying a balance
point to minimize energy consumption and pressure loss.
Key findings include that an increase in coolant flow rate
from 100 mL/min to 200 mL/min lowers battery temperature
without excessive pressure loss. This study contributes
valuable insights into designing compact thermal
management systems that ensure uniform temperature
distribution, thus extending LiC lifespan in high-performance
settings” [5] Figure. 7.1. The BTMS with heating and cooling functions:
(a) hybrid microchannel system; (b) honeycomb system.
“In their study, You et al. (2023) investigate the thermal
performance of liquid cooling plates for lithium-ion batteries
by analysing how plate parameters affect cooling efficiency.
The research reveals that increasing the flow rate in the
cooling plate from 2 to 6 L/min lowers the battery module
temperature but raises pumping power significantly.
Adjustments in the width and number of cooling channels are
shown to enhance heat dissipation, thus reducing both emphasizing how the interplay between temperature and
temperature and pumping power. The study highlights the velocity fields enhances heat dissipation. It finds that liquid
critical role of cooling channel design in optimizing thermal cooling better air cooling in achieving a more uniform
management and battery lifespan. Through orthogonal temperature distribution, particularly with an optimal
analysis, it was found that increasing the number of channels configuration of three cooling inlets, an initial coolant
and flow rate achieves superior cooling performance, temperature of 15°C, and a flow rate of 2 L/min. This
allowing the battery module temperature to remain below configuration minimizes the temperature differential within
45°C a threshold for battery safety and efficiency. The the battery pack, optimizing performance by maintaining
findings provide guidance for BTMS optimization, safer and more stable operating temperatures, especially
particularly by applying cooling plates to both the top and under high charge/discharge rates. The findings underscore
bottom of cylindrical battery modules.” [8] the importance of balancing coolant flow and inlet
temperature to maintain battery efficiency and prolong life in
electric vehicle applications.” [10]

Figure. 8.1. Comparison of bottom cooling and top and

bottom cooling; (a) bottom cooling of the battery module; (b)
top and bottom cooling of the battery module
“Li et al. (2023) focus on optimizing a liquid cooling BTMS Fig.10.1. Structural Diagram of Different Flow Channels.
for pouch lithium-ion batteries, employing flow distributors
and spiral channel cooling plates to improve temperature
uniformity and reduce temperature peaks within battery “Additionally, a liquid A liquid cooling-based battery
modules. By using single-factor and orthogonal tests, they thermal management system (BTMS) that incorporates a
identify a configuration that minimizes maximum composite phase change material (CPCM) is used for
temperature to 34.65°C and the temperature differential to lithium-ion batteries. Copper foam and expanded graphite
3.95°C. Under testing, the optimal configuration applied in (EG) were tested as thermal enhancers within CPCMs to
an electric vehicle battery pack following the WLTC analyze their effects on heat dissipation and temperature
maintained a maximum temperature of 25.51°C with a regulation under different charging/discharging conditions. A
differential below 0.21°C, underscoring its potential for real- 2D model simulated the system's thermal behavior,
world applications. The study emphasizes that effective examining parameters like inlet velocity and material
BTMS design should focus on achieving low temperature properties. Results indicated that both copper foam and EG
and uniform distribution, which is critical for battery safety effectively manage battery temperatures; however, EG-based
and efficiency in electric vehicles.” [9] CPCM provided better temperature uniformity and reduced
maximum temperatures, especially during high current
cycles. Hybrid systems that combine liquid cooling with
CPCMs are recommended for high-power applications as
they enhance cooling while minimizing pump load and
system volume. This BTMS approach could improve safety
and extend the lifespan of high-energy-density batteries by
maintaining optimal operating temperatures.”
“Another innovative cooling system for cylindrical lithium-
ion battery modules integrates phase change materials (PCM)
with heat pipes to improve thermal management. The system
includes 40 batteries, 14 heat pipes, and 13 PCM tubes filled
with paraffin as the PCM and acetone as the heat pipe fluid.
Tests under various conditions show that this hybrid design
effectively limits the maximum battery temperature to
Figure. 9.1. Effect of channel layout on: (a) maximum
47.7°C and reduces temperature variations across the module
temperature Tmax of battery module; (b) maxi mum
to 2.5°C during high-rate (2C) discharges. Heat pipes
temperature difference ∆T of battery module; (c) channel
primarily control temperature rise, while PCM tubes improve
pressure drop ∆p.
temperature uniformity. This cooling method is highly
“The paper ‘Research on the Heat Dissipation Performances effective at moderate ambient temperatures that promote
of Vehicle Power Battery Pack with Liquid Cooling System’ PCM melting, optimizing energy absorption and dissipation.
explores the impact of liquid cooling systems on thermal This compact, lightweight, and efficient thermal solution is
management in lithium-ion battery packs for electric especially suited for small to medium-sized battery modules
vehicles. The study employs the field synergy principle, in electric vehicles and similar applications.”
“A “Boiling Liquid Battery Cooling” system was developed Hybrid TMSs combine PCM with water cooling for
for lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles to ensure safe enhanced performance, with PCM ensuring even heat
and efficient temperature control under high charge and distribution and cooling pipes accelerating temperature
discharge rates. This system immerses battery cells in a reduction after high-load discharges. The hybrid TMS
hydrofluoroether coolant, chosen for its high electrical significantly lowers maximum battery temperatures and
resistance, non-flammability, and environmentally friendly improves temperature uniformity compared to active
characteristics. The coolant’s latent heat of vaporization (cooling pipes only) and passive (PCM only) methods,
stabilizes cell temperatures around 35°C during 10C and 20C making it an efficient solution for battery thermal
charge/discharge cycles, even in extreme conditions. This management in electric vehicles.”
setup minimizes temperature variation across cells,
“A study on liquid cooling systems for lithium-ion battery
enhancing battery performance and longevity. Experimental
thermal management examined different structures, mini-
results demonstrated this cooling system's effectiveness
channel counts, and flow rates using a 3D electrochemical-
compared to natural air cooling, as it maintains optimal
thermal model. Among four cooling structures, the best
temperatures and prevents overheating, reducing the risk of
performance was achieved by aligning coolant flow in a
thermal runaway.”
specific direction (case D), which enhanced heat dissipation
“Another study investigated an optimized water-cooling and temperature uniformity. Increasing the number of mini-
system for lithium-ion battery packs, using an aluminum channels and flow rate improved cooling effectiveness,
mini-channel cold plate to enhance heat dissipation. This though with diminishing returns. Using orthogonal analysis,
system lowers maximum temperature (Tmax) and the study optimized configurations to control maximum
temperature differences (Tdiff) within the battery pack, battery temperatures and reduce temperature variations,
essential for maintaining performance and safety. The study providing effective strategies for battery pack cooling.”
evaluated three cooling configurations and found that placing
“Lastly, a thermoelectric ferrofluid cooling module was
cooling plates at the bottom and sides of the battery provided
developed to manage lithium-ion battery temperatures. The
the best temperature management. Critical factors
system uses ferrofluid as a coolant in conjunction with a
influencing thermal performance include coolant flow rate
thermoelectric cooling module, effectively maintaining
and inlet temperature. Increasing flow rate improves
battery temperatures below 40°C for enhanced stability and
temperature uniformity, while lower inlet temperatures
safety. By adjusting coolant flow rates, ferrofluid
reduce Tmax, though they may increase Tdiff. The system
concentrations, and thermoelectric voltage, the system
effectively manages battery temperatures under high
achieved a 3-5°C temperature reduction and improved
discharge rates, making it viable for high-capacity
uniformity. This advanced cooling approach is promising for
applications.”
electric vehicles, addressing thermal regulation while
“cooling system using serpentine microchannels was enhancing efficiency and safety.”
optimized for lithium-ion batteries, with a focus on effective
thermal management to prevent overheating. Among three “The study presents a novel liquid cooling system for
cooling layouts, the staggered inlet-outlet design (Plan 3) cylindrical lithium-ion batteries, addressing thermal
performed best, reducing the maximum temperature to management challenges such as high temperatures and
311.26 K. Multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) uneven heat distribution. The system integrates variable
optimization further refined channel dimensions and flow contact surface aluminum blocks to enhance cooling
rates, achieving improved temperature uniformity and a performance. The design effectively transfers heat from
maximum temperature of 308.61 K. Additionally, pressure batteries to cooling water, maintaining operational
within the microchannels decreased by 13.28%, reducing temperatures within 20–40°C and reducing the temperature
energy requirements for pumping. This optimized design difference to less than 5°C under optimal conditions.
enhances thermal regulation, contributing to extended battery
life and operational safety.”
Key findings include the superior temperature uniformity
“Another innovative internal cooling system for cylindrical achieved with variable-length aluminum blocks compared to
lithium-ion batteries incorporates PCM within each cell, constant-length designs. For example, a slope parameter of 3
utilizing the PCM’s latent heat to passively regulate mm significantly improved performance, lowering
temperatures during high discharge rates. Various PCMs, temperature differences by up to 28% while reducing system
such as n-octadecane and n-eicosane, were tested for optimal weight by nearly 47%. This improvement balances cooling
temperature control with minimal solidification delay. efficiency, weight, and energy consumption. The research
Increasing the PCM core size improved cooling but reduced underscores the potential of adaptive contact surface
energy density. A hybrid design combining PCM with configurations in advancing thermal management for electric
forced-air cooling further enhanced temperature control and vehicle batteries”.[25]
uniformity, making this system suitable for compact, high-
energy-density battery packs in electric vehicles.” “The study explores liquid cooling systems for lithium-ion
“In a hybrid thermal management system (TMS) study, batteries, emphasizing liquid metal as an innovative coolant.
PCMs and water-cooling pipes were integrated for lithium- Liquid cooling systems aim to regulate battery temperature
ion battery modules. Although PCMs effectively absorb heat, within 20–45°C and ensure temperature uniformity, critical
they lack sufficient heat transfer rates when used alone. for battery lifespan and performance. Traditional coolants
like water are limited by low thermal conductivity, but liquid impact cooling performance. Cooling plates for prismatic
metal, such as gallium alloys, demonstrates superior thermal cells and jackets for cylindrical cells are preferred designs.
management due to its high thermal conductivity and low Innovations such as nanofluid additives and electromagnetic
viscosity. pumps for liquid metal cooling improve efficiency. The
review highlights the importance of optimizing coolant
Simulations reveal that liquid metal cooling achieves more properties and system design to balance thermal
uniform and lower battery temperatures compared to water, performance, energy efficiency, and safety for electric
with reduced pump power consumption. It excels in vehicles”.[28]
managing heat during high-power operations, quick
charging, and under harsh conditions. Liquid metal's
electromagnetic pumping adds reliability and reduces
maintenance. Challenges include higher weight and material
compatibility issues, like aluminum corrosion, which require
specialized coatings. This innovative cooling approach is
particularly suited for high-performance electric vehicles and
fast-charging applications, offering promising advancements
in thermal management”.[26]

“The study explores the optimization of liquid cooling

systems for lithium-ion batteries to enhance thermal “It evaluates cooling strategies for lithium-ion battery packs,
performance. The cooling system utilizes aluminum cooling focusing on liquid cooling systems. Liquid cooling, both
plates and a thermal conductive pad to ensure efficient heat direct and indirect, offers superior thermal performance
transfer. Key factors affecting thermal management include compared to air and fin cooling. Indirect liquid cooling
the width of the cooling plate, inlet temperature, and mass employs a "jacket" that separates the coolant from the battery
flow rate. cell, minimizing leakage risks. It uses water/glycol as the
coolant, which has high heat capacity and conductivity. This
Increasing the cooling plate width significantly reduces method provides better temperature control and uniformity,
maximum battery temperature and temperature differences making it suitable for electric vehicles.
but becomes less effective beyond a certain point due to
weight and space constraints. Lower inlet temperatures and Direct liquid cooling involves circulating a dielectric liquid
higher mass flow rates also improve cooling but must be directly in contact with battery surfaces, offering excellent
balanced against pump power consumption thermal regulation but posing potential leakage challenges.
The study finds that indirect liquid cooling balances
.An orthogonal test determined the optimal parameters: a performance, weight, and safety, with a moderate increase in
cooling plate width of 70 mm, an inlet temperature of 18°C, battery weight. Coolant flow rate and system design
and a mass flow rate of 0.25 kg/s, reducing maximum significantly influence efficiency. By managing flow speed,
temperature by 12.61% and temperature difference by indirect cooling can achieve minimal temperature rise with
20.83%. The study highlights the importance of multi-factor reduced parasitic energy consumption, enhancing battery
optimization for effective battery thermal management”.[27] lifespan and safety in electric drive vehicles”.[29]

“lithium-ion battery liquid cooling systems, focusing on

enhancing battery thermal management. Liquid cooling is
deemed efficient due to the high thermal conductivity and
specific heat capacity of liquids. Key coolants include water,
oils, and novel fluids like nanofluids, liquid metals, and
boiling liquids. Indirect cooling, which uses plates, jackets,
or tubes, separates the liquid from the battery to prevent “This introduces a liquid cooling system based on a half-
leakage and optimize safety. Parameters like flow rate, helical duct for thermal management in cylindrical lithium-
channel geometry, and material properties significantly
ion batteries. This method enhances temperature uniformity The study highlights the importance of optimizing spacing to
and keeps the maximum temperature within safe operational balance thermal uniformity and temperature management,
limits, improving battery performance and longevity. The enhancing battery life and reliability in electric vehicles”.[31]
half-helical duct design ensures efficient heat dissipation by
surrounding the battery, with water or similar coolants “A hybrid thermal management system integrating liquid
circulating through it. Key factors such as inlet mass flow cooling and phase change materials (PCMs) for cylindrical
rate, duct pitch, number of ducts, flow direction, and duct
lithium-ion batteries. The system combines a cold plate for
diameter significantly influence cooling performance.
active liquid cooling with a PCM matrix to enhance thermal
Optimal conditions, like an inlet flow rate of 3 × 10 ⁻⁴ kg/s, regulation. Key findings include:
reduce the maximum temperature and temperature difference
effectively. Adjustments in flow direction and duct diameter 1. Liquid Cooling Efficiency: Water inlet temperature
further enhance thermal uniformity, with larger diameters and flowrate are critical. Optimal performance is
showing better results. Compared to traditional methods like achieved at a water temperature of 30°C and a low
jackets, this innovative approach avoids stagnant zones and flowrate, balancing heat dissipation and energy
provides more efficient thermal management, making it efficiency. High flowrates improve cooling but can
suitable for applications in electric vehicles “[30] increase axial temperature differences.
2. PCM Contribution: Composite PCMs, especially
those with higher latent heat, significantly lower
battery temperatures and improve uniformity. The
study shows that PCMs with high RT44HC content
reduce peak temperatures and maintain a narrow
temperature range during operation.
3. Numerical Modeling: Simulations validate
experimental results and highlight how PCM
properties, such as latent heat and thermal
conductivity, influence cooling effectiveness. A
higher PCM mass fraction improves performance by
reducing temperature gradients and peak
temperatures.

This hybrid approach enhances safety and longevity in

lithium-ion battery systems.” [32]

“liquid cooling systems for lithium-ion batteries, highlighting

their effectiveness in managing high thermal loads during
“liquid cooling systems for lithium-ion battery packs, operation. Liquid cooling offers a higher heat transfer
focusing on thermal management through boiling coefficient than air-based systems, making it suitable for
phenomena. The coolant forms a liquid pool surrounding the high discharge rates. These systems are classified into direct
batteries, maintained at a pressure with a saturation and indirect methods:
temperature matching optimal battery operation. Heat
generated during charging/discharging causes the pool to
1. Direct Liquid Cooling: Utilizes dielectric fluids in
evaporate, providing high heat transfer rates due to phase
direct contact with battery surfaces, achieving
change.
efficient heat dissipation. Advanced coolants like
nanofluids, boiling liquids, and liquid metals
Four battery configurations with varying spacing are improve thermal conductivity. Challenges include
analyzed for thermal performance under different fluid selection and risk of leakage.
charge/discharge rates (4C, 5C, and 6C). Larger spacing 2. Indirect Liquid Cooling: Employs heat transfer
reduces maximum temperatures but increases temperature fluids via channels or cold plates without direct
gradients within the pack. Smaller spacing enhances battery contact, reducing leakage risks.
temperature uniformity but accelerates coolant depletion, Mini/microchannel integration enhances
increasing overall temperatures. Boiling-based cooling performance, though system weight and complexity
demonstrates superior heat removal efficiency, but spacing remain concerns.
and coolant levels significantly affect performance.
Recent innovations incorporate nanofluids and boiling
techniques to further improve thermal management. Liquid
cooling systems are vital for maintaining battery
temperatures within optimal ranges, ensuring safety, potential in enhancing BTMS performance (Abdelkareem et
efficiency, and extended lifespan”.[33] al., 2022).” [37]
“Liquid-cooled BTMS remains a critical area of research for
“liquid cooling plate (LCP) for lithium-ion battery thermal improving EV performance and battery longevity. While it
management in electric vehicles. This hybrid cooling plate offers significant advantages over air cooling, ongoing
combines active liquid cooling and passive phase-change research aims to address its limitations through innovative
materials (PCM) for enhanced performance. The LCP is 36% design improvements and hybrid systems. Future
lighter than traditional aluminum plates due to PCM developments in liquid-cooled BTMS are likely to focus on
integration, improving energy efficiency. It demonstrates optimizing coolant properties, exploring novel materials, and
effective cooling during operation, reducing pump energy refining system configurations to achieve better temperature
consumption by up to 30%, and ensures temperature control and uniformity across battery packs.” [38]
uniformity, critical for battery lifespan. Additionally, in cold
environments, the PCM's latent heat prevents rapid cooling, “Liquid-cooled BTMS have proven to be highly effective in
minimizing the need for active heating during short stops. maintaining optimal battery temperatures in EVs. With
The design is modular, facilitating easy integration and appropriate configurations, liquid cooling can provide up to
maintenance. This system offers a promising solution for 3500 times more efficient cooling than air cooling. However,
efficient and safe battery thermal management”.[34] challenges remain, including achieving uniform temperature
distribution, preventing thermal runaway, and optimizing
energy consumption. Future research should focus on
addressing these issues and exploring innovative hybrid
cooling solutions to further improve the performance and
reliability of BTMS in EVs”[39].”
“Interestingly, some studies have explored hybrid cooling
systems that combine liquid cooling with other technologies.
For instance, the integration of phase change materials
(PCMs) with liquid cooling has shown promise in improving
temperature uniformity and overall cooling performance
(Zhao et al., 2023). Additionally, the use of nanofluids in
“Liquid-cooled battery thermal management systems combination with PCMs and heat pipes has demonstrated
(BTMS) have emerged as a highly effective solution for enhanced thermal management capabilities compared to
maintaining optimal temperature in electric vehicle (EV) single BTMS approaches.” [40]
battery packs. This cooling method offers superior heat
transfer efficiency and cooling capacity compared to passive
and active air-cooling methods (Zhao et al., 2022). Liquid 4. Comparative Analysis of Cooling Designs
cooling can effectively reduce battery temperature, although
it faces challenges in maintaining temperature uniformity
“The reviewed studies provide a wide range of cooling
(Zhao et al., 2023).0”
configurations, each offering unique benefits and trade-offs.
“Recent research has focused on improving liquid-cooled Parallel cooling configurations, as shown in Wang et al.
BTMS design through various approaches. These include (2020), deliver improved temperature uniformity over serial
optimizing coolant channels, heat transfer jackets, cold arrangements, which is advantageous in mass-production
plates, coolant properties, refrigeration cooling systems, heat settings. Meanwhile, mini-channel cooling (Yates et al.,
pipes, and hybrid cooling systems (Zhao et al., 2022). 2019) offers enhanced temperature control, even though with
Among these, cooling channel improvements, refrigerant higher production costs, highlighting an important
cooling, and liquid-PCM hybrid cooling have shown the consideration for manufacturers aiming to balance efficiency
most promise in enhancing BTMS performance (Zhao et al., with cost.”
2022). For instance, connecting two sets of liquid coolant “Hybrid cooling plates, incorporating PCM for passive and
plates in a 3-series, 1-parallel configuration can significantly liquid for active cooling (Akbarzadeh et al., 2021), are
reduce the maximum temperature of a battery pack while especially promising for reducing energy consumption while
controlling temperature differences (Wei et al., 2024).” maintaining operational efficiency. This combination is
beneficial in applications requiring variable cooling
“Interestingly, while liquid cooling is widely used in intensities based on usage patterns. Direct liquid cooling
commercial EVs, it is not without limitations. The integration (DLC) approaches, like the one Tan et al. (2021) explored,
of phase change materials (PCMs) with liquid cooling provide compact solutions that maximize cooling efficiency
systems has been identified as a promising approach to but need intensive control of coolant properties.”
address some of these shortcomings (Zhao et al., 2023). This “For high-power environments, channel configurations, such
hybrid approach can potentially improve temperature as those examined by Karimi et al. (2020), offer a compact
uniformity and overall thermal management efficiency. solution that maintains efficient temperature regulation. The
Additionally, novel cooling mediums such as nanofluids, Field coordination Principle (Yang et al., 2023) introduces a
when combined with PCMs and heat pipes, have shown more advanced approach by aligning thermal and
hydrodynamic fields to optimize cooling performance temperatures to maintain performance and safety. While air
without drawing excess power.” cooling has traditionally been used, it is often inadequate in
“Finally, optimized cooling plate designs by You et al. preventing overheating during rapid charging or high
(2023) and Li et al. (2023) emphasize the importance of discharge cycles. Liquid cooling systems, however, offer
design parameters like channel width, flow rate, and improved thermal conductivity, allowing for more efficient
distribution paths, which are crucial for uniform temperature heat dissipation and temperature control. This not only
maintenance and energy efficiency. Together, these studies prolongs the battery's lifespan but also enhances performance
highlight the need for customizable and flexible BTMS by reducing thermal stress on battery cells. The study
configurations in EV battery applications.” highlights the potential of liquid cooling as an advanced
solution for battery thermal management, capable of meeting
the stringent demands of modern energy storage
applications.

7. Conclusion

In conclusion, this study reaffirms the importance of efficient

thermal management for lithium-ion batteries and
demonstrates the superiority of liquid cooling systems over
traditional air cooling methods. Liquid cooling systems are
capable of maintaining a consistent and lower temperature
range, which minimizes the risk of overheating and enhances
battery lifespan. The comparative analysis reveals that liquid
cooling is particularly beneficial under high-power
5. Discussion conditions, where air cooling often falls short in dissipating
heat effectively. Moreover, the integration of advanced
Emerging trends in BTMS design focus on modular, materials and cooling strategies, such as nanofluids and
scalable, and hybrid configurations that address the closed-loop designs, further amplifies the efficiency of liquid
diverse needs of battery cooling in high-performance EV cooling systems. These insights suggest that liquid cooling is
applications. Hybrid systems, which combine active and an indispensable component for future advancements in
passive cooling, are increasingly relevant as they reduce battery technology, making it well-suited for electric vehicles
energy demands without compromising performance. As and other high-demand applications.
EV technology evolves, the industry is likely to see
more field integration and mini-channel configurations
that provide precise temperature control while ensuring
cost-effectiveness. However, challenges remain in
achieving the ideal balance between energy efficiency,
cooling effectiveness, and production costs. Future
research should focus on optimizing these cooling
designs further and testing composite systems that
integrate liquid cooling with PCM or air-based
components.

6. Summary

This paper investigates the role of liquid cooling systems in

lithium-ion battery thermal management, particularly in
comparison with air cooling. Lithium-ion batteries, widely
used in electric vehicles, require stable operating
 [13] P. Li, J. Zhao, S. Zhou, J. Duan, X. Li, H. Zhang,
and J. Yuan, “Design and Optimization of a Liquid
Cooling Thermal Management System with Flow
Distributors and Spiral Channel Cooling Plates for
References Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Energies, vol. 16, no. 2196, pp.
1-23, 2023.
[1] A.G. Olabi, Hussein M. Maghrabie, “Battery thermal [14] D. Yin, J. Ni, X. Shi, and H. Liu, “Research on the
management systems: Recent progress and challenges”, heat dissipation performances of vehicle power battery
International Journal of Thermofluids, 2022. pack with liquid cooling system,” Tongji University, vol.
[2] Kai Wen, Xingfeng Fu, Feng Pei, “Research on the 10, no. 3, pp. 101–120, 2024.
thermal management safety of the fast charging power [15] Zhao, Y., Li, Q., Zou, B., Zhang, T., Jin, L., Qiao,
battery management system”, Energy Reports, Vol. 10, G., … Ding, Y. (2020). Performance of a liquid cooling-
2023. based battery thermal management system with a
[3] Le Duc Tai, Kunal Sandip Garud, Seong-Guk Hwang, composite phase change material. International Journal of
Moo-Yeon Lee, “A Review on Advanced Battery Energy Research.
Thermal Management Systems for Fast Charging in [16] Wang, Y., Peng, P., Cao, W., Dong, T., Zheng, Y.,
Electric Vehicles”, 2024. Lei, B., … Jiang, F. (2020). Experimental study on a
[4] Haitao Wang, Tao Tao, Jun Xu, Xuesong Mei, Xiaoyan novel compact cooling system for cylindrical lithium-ion
Liu, Piao Gou, “Cooling capacity of a novel modular battery module. Applied Thermal Engineering, 180,
liquid-cooled battery thermal management for cylindrical 115772.
lithium-ion battery module”, 2020. [17] Hirano, H., Tajima, T., Hasegawa, T., Sekiguchi, T.,
[5] Om Nanasaheb Pawar1, Sarthak Pradip Yadao, Chaitanya & Uchino, M. (2014).Boiling Liquid Battery Cooling for
Thate, Prathmesh Amalkant Mestri, Ganesh Raju Electric Vehicle. 2014 IEEE Conference and Expo
Kamble, Prof. Dr. Mahesh Gaikwad, “Improving Electric Transportation Electrification Asia-Pacific (ITEC Asia-
2-Wheeler Battery Thermal Management through Liquid Pacific).
Cooling”, 2024. [18] Tang, A., Li, J., Lou, L., Shan, C., & Yuan, X.
[6] M. Yates, M. Akrami, and A. A. Javadi, “Analysing the (2019). Optimization design and numerical study on
performance of liquid cooling designs in cylindrical water cooling structure for power lithium battery pack.
lithium-ion batteries,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. Applied Thermal Engineering, 113760.
26, pp. 100913, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.est.2019.100913. [19] Wang, N., Li, C., Li, W., Chen, X., Li, Y., & Qi, D.
[7] M. Akbarzadeh, J. Jaguemont, T. Kalogiannis, D. Karimi, (2021). Heat dissipation optimization for a serpentine
J. He, L. Jin, P. Xie, J. Van Mierlo, and M. Berecibar, “A liquid cooling battery thermal management system: An
novel liquid cooling plate concept for thermal application of surrogate assisted approach. Journal of
management of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles,” Energy Storage, 40, 102771.
Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 231, pp. [20] Zhao, R., Gu, J., & Liu, J. (2017). Optimization of a
113862, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2021.113862. phase change material based internal cooling system for
[8] X. Tan, et al., "Numerical Investigation of the Direct cylindrical Li-ion battery pack and a hybrid cooling
Liquid Cooling of a Fast-Charging Lithium-Ion Battery design. Energy, 135, 811–822.
Pack in Hydrofluoroether," Applied Thermal doi:10.1016/j.energy.2017
Engineering, vol. 196, pp. 117279, 2021. [21] Hekmat, S., & Molaeimanesh, G. R. (2019). Hybrid
[9] D. Karimi, et al., "A Compact and Optimized Liquid- thermal management of a Li-ion battery module with
Cooled Thermal Management System for High Power phase change material and cooling water pipes: An
Lithium-Ion Capacitors," Applied Thermal Engineering, experimental investigation. Applied Thermal
vol. 185, pp. 116449, 2020. Engineering, 114759.
[10] J. Yang, "Research on the Heat Dissipation [22] Wang, J., Lu, S., Wang, Y., Li, C., & Wang, K.
Performances of Lithium-Ion Battery Pack with Liquid (2020). Effect analysis on thermal behavior enhancement
Cooling System," Research Article, 2023. of lithium–ion battery pack with different cooling
structures. Journal of Energy Storage, 32, 101800.
[11] J. Liu, H. Chen, S. Huang, Y. Jiao, and M. Chen,
“Recent Progress and Prospects in Liquid Cooling [23] Sirikasemsuk, S., Wiriyasart, S., Naphon, P., &
Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Naphon, N. (2021). Thermal cooling characteristics of Li-
Batteries, vol. 9, no. 400, pp. 1-37, 2023. ion battery pack with thermoelectric ferrofluid cooling
module. International Journal of Energy Research, 45(6),
[12] N. You, J. Ham, D. Shin, and H. Cho, “Performance 8824–8836.
Analysis of the Liquid Cooling System for Lithium-Ion
Batteries According to Cooling Plate Parameters,” [24] De Vita, A., Maheshwari, A., Destro, M., Santarelli,
Batteries, vol. 9, no. 538, pp. 1-14, 2023. M., & Carello, M. (2017). Transient thermal analysis of a
 lithium-ion battery packcomparing different cooling cylindrical Li-ion batteries: an experimental and
solutions for automotive applications. Applied Energy, numerical study. Energy, 116565
206, 101–112.
[25] Rao, Zhonghao, Zhen Qian, Yong Kuang, and
Yimin Li. "Thermal performance of liquid cooling based [33] Thakur, A. K., Prabakaran, R., Elkadeem, M. R.,
thermal management system for cylindrical lithium-ion Sharshir, S. W., Arıcı, M., Wang, C., … Saidur, R.
battery module with variable contact surface." Applied (2020). A state of art review and future viewpoint on
Thermal Engineering 123 (2017): advance cooling techniques for Lithium–ion battery
system of electric vehicles. Journal of Energy Storage,
[26] Yang, Xiao-Hu, Si-Cong Tan, and Jing Liu.
32, 101771
"Thermal management of Li-ion battery with liquid
metal." Energy conversion and management 117 (2016):
[27] Shang, Zhuangzhuang, Hongzhong Qi, Xintian Liu,
[34] Akbarzadeh, M., Jaguemont, J., Kalogiannis, T.,
Chenzhi Ouyang, and Yansong Wang. "Structural
Karimi, D., He, J., Jin, L., … Berecibar, M. (2021). A
optimization of lithium-ion battery for improving thermal
novel liquid cooling plate concept for thermal
performance based on a liquid cooling system."
management of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles.
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 130
Energy Conversion and Management, 231, 113862
(2019)

[28] . Deng, Yuanwang, Changling Feng, E. [35] Yize Zhao, Xuelai Zhang, Bo Yang, Shaowei Cai,
Jiaqiang, Hao Zhu, Jingwei Chen, Ming Wen, “A review of battery thermal management systems using
and Huichun Yin. "Effects of different liquid cooling and PCM”, 2023
coolants and cooling strategies on the cooling
performance of the power lithium ion battery [36] Gang Zhao, Xiaolin Wang, Michael Negnevitsky,
system: A review." Applied Thermal Chengjiang Li, “An up-to-date review on the design
Engineering 142 (2018) improvement and optimization of the liquid-cooling
battery thermal management system for electric
vehicles”, 2022.
[37] Wenhua Wei, Zhi Luo, Shixin Qiao, Jiawei Zhai,
[29] . Chen, Dafen, Jiuchun Jiang, Gi-Heon Kim, Zhiguo Lei, “Analysis and design of module-level liquid
Chuanbo Yang, and Ahmad Pesaran. cooling system for rectangular Li-ion batteries”, 2024.
"Comparison of different cooling methods for
[38] Anisha and Anil Kumar, “Identification and
lithium ion battery cells." Applied Thermal
Mitigation of Shortcomings in Direct and Indirect Liquid
Engineering 94 (2016)
Cooling-Based Battery Thermal Management System”,
2023.
[39] Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem, Hussein M
Maghrabie, Ahmed G Abo-Khalil, Ohood Hameed
[30] Zhou, H., Zhou, F., Zhang, Q., Wang, Q., & Song,
Kadhim Adhari, Enas Taha Sayed, Ali Radwan, Khaled
Z. (2019). Thermal management of cylindrical Lithium-
Elsaid, Tabbi Wilberforce, A.G Olabi, “Battery thermal
ion battery based on a liquid cooling method with half-
management systems based on nanofluids for electric
helical duct. Applied Thermal Engineering, 114257
vehicles”

[31] Al-Zareer, M., Dincer, I., & Rosen, M. A.

(2019). A novel approach for performance
improvement of liquid to vapor based battery
cooling systems. Energy Conversion and
Management, 187, 191–204

[32] Cao, J., Luo, M., Fang, X., Ling, Z., & Zhang, Z.
(2019). Liquid cooling with phase change materials for