Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810, doi: 10.20964/2022.08.

40

International Journal of
ELECTROCHEMICAL
SCIENCE
www.electrochemsci.org

Experimental Analysis of Thermal Behavior of a Lithium-Ion

Battery using Constant Voltage under Different Cooling
Conditions
Dhanaselvam Jayamohan1,*, Rukkumani Venkatasalam2, Chinnadurai Thangam3
1
Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering, Sri Krishna College of Technology,
Coimbatore, India.
2
Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College,
Coimbatore, India.
3
Department of Mechatronics, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India.
*
E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 4 April 2022 / Accepted: 29 May 2022 / Published: 4 July 2022

Lithium-Ion Battery (LiB) plays a vital role in the applications from smart phone to Electric Vehicles
(EV). In general, LiB is used as the main resource for primary as well as secondary applications because
they have advantages such as long cycle life, slow self-discharge, high capacity, and low maintenance.
In spite of its advantages, few factors such as protection circuit, efficient thermal management systems,
battery material, cost and safety, degrade the performance of the LiB. So, to analyze the thermal behavior
of the Lithium-ion battery, it is tested under air, water and oil cooling methods. A LiFeO4 LiB with 3.2
V/ 6Ah capacity is used for the analysis. The nominal voltage and capacity are 24 V and 48mAh
respectively. The temperature profile of the battery is tested under different temperature-cooling
environments. The experimental results are validated using MATLAB and Minitab software. In
MATLAB, the Simulink model is designed to operate a 5HP/240V/1750 RPM DC motor. In this
analysis, charging / discharging characteristics, State of Charge (SOC) under different ambient
temperatures and motor torque characteristics are obtained. The temperature influences under various
cooling methods have to be analyzed using Minitab-2017 software. It is interpreted by Response Surface
Methodology (RSM) and contour plot graphical analysis. It gives a very clear picture about the
relationship between different factors such as charging / discharging voltage, various temperature points,
temperature control with cooling and without cooling. Also, this analysis helps to identify thermal
influence on the battery performance where the minimum temperature is very clearly visible. The safe
operating temperature can easily be identified for various applications. This analysis aids in the
prediction of extreme temperature conditions and provides solutions to protect the system. So, through
this analysis, it is possible to identify the optimum operating temperature range of a Lithium-ion battery.

Keywords: Lithium-ion Battery, Cooling mechanism, RSM Analysis, thermal behavior

Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 2

1. INTRODUCTION

Lithium-Ion Battery (LiB) is used in a variety of applications ranging from cell phones to electric
vehicles (EV). LiB is commonly utilised as the principal resource for both primary and secondary
applications because of its benefits, which include extended cycle life, slow self-discharge, high
capacity, and low maintenance. It has been decided to develop the functional areas such as infrastructure,
energy usage, charging station, emission of CO2 and battery development. Despite its benefits, the LiB's
performance is harmed by a number of issues such as its protection circuit, effective heat management
systems, battery material, cost, and safety. To address these restrictions, several strategies for increasing
and stabilizing battery performance during operation must be developed / improved. Among all
aforementioned factors, temperature related problems are to be considered very seriously because it
directly leads to safety. Due to this reason, LiBs have not been widely deployed commercially for many
applications. So, the factors like capacity and power fade, thermal runaway, internal imbalance, low
temperature performance are to be analyzed with different temperature ranges and environmental
conditions.
The performance of the battery is highly temperature dependent. Various internal and external
factors affect the performance of LiB and accelerates the degradation. Temperature is considered as a
major limitation of LiB in which, both low and high temperature cause performance degradation [1-2].
So, maintaining the temperature within the limits is a crucial part in LiB to ensure safety, cost and
lifecycle. It is stated that the optimal temperature range of LiB is 15°C to 35°C [3-4].

Figure 1. Temperature effects of Lithium-ion battery under different temperature

Environmental factors are also causes for temperature reduction and internally generated
temperature from the battery is the main reason for temperature rise [5]. At low temperatures, internal
resistance is increased due to low ionic conductivity [6]. In this situation, the charge transfer resistance
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 3

will be three times more than the resistance at room temperature. At low temperatures, Lithium-ion
diffusion is almost non-existent [7]. Other than the aforementioned factors, it is observed that low
temperature operation leads to side reaction, slowdown in storage, electrode surface damage, faster aging
rate, and capacity loss [8-9]. Analyzing temperature changes under various circumstances is a very
crucial part in battery thermal management because it leads to harmful effects. The various effects are
shown in the figure 1.
Some of the harmful effects are like, - temperature of the battery rises due to internal chemical
reaction during charging / discharging, entropy changes and charge transfer process. The generated heat
is distributed to the cell surfaces. The uncontrolled heat generation in the battery cells fastens the
chemical reaction which leads to thermal runaway and explosion [10]. The heat generation is happening
in the following order: (i) At 60°C - Capacity loss and decomposition, (ii) Exothermic reaction affects
electrode material at 100°C, (iii) Separator melting at 130°C, (iv) Anode and cathode decomposition at
240°C, and (v) When the temperature reaches 800°C, it increases internal pressure and leads to emission
of harmful gas, smokes, fire and unexpected explosion [6, 11].
To reduce the harmful reaction of the battery due to temperature, in LiB, measurement and
control of it is need of the hour to improve the overall performance and also the safety. This can be
achieved by designing of cooling system or improving the performance of Thermal Management System
(TMS). When temperature is generated inside the battery it will be unevenly distributed among the cells.
So, The TMS must ensure the management of high temperature as well as uneven temperature
distribution [12]. It can be achieved by having a cooling system under high temperature. There are
various methods employed for controlling the battery temperature. It includes air cooling, liquid cooling
and phase change materials [13-15]. In general, air cooling and liquid cooling are used as a coolant and
phase change materials are used as a coolant medium [16]. Designing of TMS depends on effectiveness
of cooling, weight of the system, total production cost, complexity and, parasitic power consumption
[13].
The following is how the work is structured: The second Section is devoted to a review of the
literature on various cooling technologies and coolants. Air, water, and liquid cooling are all considered
in this study, and the benefits and drawbacks of each are examined. The experimental setup for
temperature management of Lithium-ion Batteries is described in Section 3. It also covers several
methods of analysis, such as real-time experimental setup, MATLAB analysis, and Minitab analysis, all
of which are necessary for the experimental study and validation. The findings of the experimentation
are explained in Section 4. The analysis is based on experimental data in order to comprehend the
changes in voltage and temperature caused by various cooling methods. For constructing a battery
thermal model for a DC motor load under varied ambient temperatures, a MATLAB Simulink Model is
employed. Finally, the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and contour plot graphical analysis are
performed using Minitab software. The temperature influence of air, water, and oil cooling systems is
very readily recognized from this research.
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 4

2. LITERATURE SURVEY

Cooling methods play a vital role in reduction or controlling the temperature in LiB. Air and
liquid cooling methods are the basic types. Based on the construction, the type of the cooling material,
and nature of the applications, the cooling methods are chosen. Air cooling was employed for Honda
Insight and Toyota Prius and it is found that this method gives effectiveness in temperature reduction up
to 55°C [17]. After that, some improvement had been made for better thermal management. Yang et al
[18-19] proposed air-cooling method with airflow ducts and Mohammadi et al [20-23] investigated with
metal foam to improve the performance. Zhao et al [24] implemented air-cooling method to the
cylindrical battery system and it was found that uneven temperature distribution was reduced. In addition
to that, forced air cooling was also developed for drastic temperature reduction. But under high
temperatures, the uniformity of temperature distribution was poor. However, adding exhaust fan and
changing the flow channel will improve the performance to the certain extent. But the air-cooling method
is not sufficient for electrical vehicle applications because the heat generation is more than the above-
mentioned limit [18-25].
Another method is known as phase change material in which the heat absorption is good
compared to the air-cooling method. Like the air-cooling method, the phase change material method is
also simple, of less weight and temperature between the cells can be controlled effectively. The only
drawback of this method is low thermal conductivity. By adding metal additives, thermal conductivity
can be improved. But, in applications like electric vehicles, this method is also not sufficient because the
heat generation will be in higher order [27-28].
Liquid cooling system is another method for maintaining temperature within a limit in the
Lithium-ion battery. This method provides an efficient temperature control mechanism and it is used to
prolong the battery cycle life. Also, the heat transfer coefficient, volumetric and mass flow rates are
better than air cooling system. But, the limitations of this method are, that, it requires a large space which
leads to more cost. The design of the liquid cooling system is based on the type, and performance of the
coolant and type of the battery pack [29-32]. The effectiveness of the cooling can be improved by
different methods such as cooling tubes, jacket construction and dielectric fluid.
For the better cooling mechanism, selecting of coolant medium plays a vital role and some of
them for the better cooling mechanism, selecting the coolant medium plays a vital role and some of them
are water, glycol, various types of oils, and acetone. [33]. Battery temperature control depends on the
factors such as fluid flow rate, viscosity, density and thermal conductivity [29]. The rate of controlling
is different for different coolants. For example, water is a fundamental liquid which can control the
temperature upto 48.7°C under high flow rate [34]. But, the heat transfer efficiency of the oil is better
than water, so, oil-based coolant can provide effective heat control [35]. In general, the viscosity of oil
is greater and it requires more pumping power to move the heat transfer. But it is understood that under
the same pumping power (KW) oil cooling provides 1.5 to 3 times better response than water [36].
In general, the thermal conductivity is comparatively less for conventional air- and water-cooling
methods, as they are insufficient to provide effective cooling. So, in-order to achieve this, high thermal
conductive nano fluids are added with the conventional system to increase the effectiveness of cooling.
When nano fluids with different ratio are used, the thermal conductivity can be varied and it enables
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 5

better thermal management. Usually, Al, Ag, Al2O3, Ni, CuO, Fe3O4 are used as nano particles [37-40]
to enhance the thermal conductivity but it depends on particle size, type of the particle, fluid type,
concentration and volume fraction. When water-Cu nano particle is taken into account, 0.1% of volume
fraction makes thermal conductivity to increase up to 23.8% [41-44]. Other materials like Al2O3-
water/glycol combination with 0.5% volume fraction increased the thermal conductivity. Other than this,
Al2O3/TiO2/SiO2 mixtures show theatrically good results. When the particle size of the nano particles is
reduced, it increases the Brownian moment and liquid layering activities which has high thermal
conductivity [45-47].
From the literature survey, it is clearly understood that many researchers had discussed about
different cooling methods to maintain optimum temperature in Lithium-ion battery. In this proposed
work, an LiFeO4 - 3.2 V/ 6Ah capacity of 1KW LiB is tested for a constant lamp load of 1KW under
different temperature conditions. Also, various cooling methods such as air, water and oil are employed
for continuous monitoring control of cell voltage and temperature for the application mentioned above.
From the experimental data, the change in voltage and change in temperature is found for the different
cooling methods. The experimental data are validated using MATLAB Simulink and Minitab software.
From the MATLAB simulation, when the battery is tested under different ambient temperatures from-
30°C to +20°C, the change in cell voltage is analyzed. Based on this experimental data, Minitab software
is used to analyze thermal influence under different cooling systems very clearly. For this analysis,
Contour Plot and RSM are used and the optimal temperature and different coolant conditions are
determined.

3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

3.1 Battery / Load Setup

The Thermal Management System is designed for 1KW LiB battery pack. A LiFeO 4 LiB with
3.2 V/ 6Ah capacity is used for the analysis. The nominal voltage and capacity are 24 V and 48mAh
respectively. The total life of the battery is about 3000 cycles.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. Experimental setup of the proposed system. (a) 1KW battery system with cell arrangement
(b) 1.05 KW lamp load which includes 210W of 5 lamps.
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 6

Figure 3. Temperature Management System

The operating temperature range is from 0°C to 60°C. To analyze the charging/ discharging
performance the battery, 1.05KW AC load is used. The total capacity is included as 210W of lamp loads.
To operate AC load, 1.5KW inverter is used to convert DC voltage into AC voltage. The entire
experimental setup of battery system is shown in Figures 2- (a) & (b). The complete setup of the system
is represented as block diagram in figure 3.

3.2 Cooling material

Liquid cooling system is taken into the consideration in this analysis because it has better
temperature control when compared with other methods for electrical vehicle applications.

Table 1. Thermal physical properties of Air, Water and Oil [2,42-44]

Properties Air Water Oil

Liquid Density (𝐾𝑔/𝑚3 ) 875.5 999.975 875
Specific heat Capacity (𝐾𝐽/𝐾𝑔. 𝐾) 1.006 412 910
Thermal conductivity at 0°C (𝑚𝑊/ 24.35 0.598 0.1056
𝑚𝐾)
Thermal expansion coefficient 0.00369 0.042 0.00064
Boiling Temperature (°C) 26 99.97 196
Condensation temperature(°C) 27.6 100 260-370
Critical Temperature (°C) 55.9 373.94 -
Critical Pressure (atm.) 37.363 217.7 -
Density (𝐾𝑔/𝑚3 ) 1.276 999.87 870
Dynamic Viscosity (Pas) 17.22 × 10−6 8.9 × 10−4 -
Kinematic Viscosity (𝑚𝑚2 /𝑆) 0.0134 0.1684 75
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 7

Water, glycol, various types of oils and acetone are commonly used coolants for Lithium-ion
batteries. It is known that glycol is a water-miscible coolant that can be used to conduct temperature
from the battery. Ethylene glycol-water mixture is used for low voltage battery thermal management
applications. When it is used for high voltage applications, it leads to safety issues. The temperature
range of freezing and boiling points can be varied by having different ethylene glycol-water mixtures. It
is possible to increase the freezing point to -3.4°C, -13.7°C and -52.8°C when 10%, 30% and 60% of
ethylene glycol solution is used. In this work, air cooling and liquid cooling are considered for the
temperature management. The two different combinations, water / glycol mixture and water / glycol /
Nano fluid are used as coolant materials.

3.3 MATLAB Environment

The available capacity of the battery is measured as State of Charge (SOC). During charging and
discharging it varies from 0 to 100%. Due to aging the SOC of the battery is affected. Temperature is an
important factor which affects the SOC and leads to battery degradation, So, the SOC -temperature effect
must be analyzed. This analysis is carried out using MATLAB Simulink library environment. A 64 bit,
R2017a version of MATLAB is used for the simulation study.

Figure 4. Simulink model for temperature effect of LiB.

Based on the proposed work, the Simulink model is designed to analyze the charging &
discharging characteristics and temperature effects of 3.2 V/ 6Ah capacity Lithium-ion battery. The
battery is connected with a DC motor load through DC-to-DC converter. Using this model, it is possible
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 8

to analyze variation in the cell temperature with respect to environmental temperature. To analyze
temperature variation, different ambient temperatures are set and the cell temperature is estimated. Also,
the speed torque characteristic of the DC motor can be determined using this model and it is as shown
in Figure 4.
The initial SOC is fixed as 80% and minimum SOC is set as 20% for the analysis. The simulated
results are shown in Figures 9 to 12. The measurement of battery parameters such as voltage, current,
SOC during charging and discharging, ambient temperature and cell temperature are also plotted.

3.4 Minitab Data Analyzing Tool

The data obtained from real time experimentation must be interpreted for various analyses. In
this work, Minitab-2017 software tool is used for the analysis. It is done by Response Surface
Methodology (RSM) and Contour Plot graphical analysis. It gives a very clear picture about the
relationship between different factors such as charging / discharging voltage, various temperature points,
temperature control with cooling and without cooling. By using this tool, it is easy to estimate the
optimum temperature range under various working conditions because the Minitab consists of statistical
procedure and mathematical analyses which are used to take effective decision on the temperature
profile.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this proposed work, a comparative analysis is made between air, water and liquid cooling
methods for the given Lithium-ion battery pack under different temperature conditions. Since it is an
indirect cooling method, the cooling tubes or channels are fixed around the battery pack. In this work,
initially air is used as a cooling medium and the analysis is made in terms of the effectiveness of air
coolant on temperature control. Secondly, air is replaced by water for better improvement. Thirdly, to
conduct more heat from the battery, Al2O3 Nano fluid is added with water / glycol mixture. And also,
the effect of temperature on the SOC of the battery is analyzed with MATLAB simulation. The data
obtained from the experiments is interpreted by the Minitab Statistical Analysis tool.

Table 2. Comparison of various cooling methods [2,26, 42-44]

Thermal
Sl.
Management Points observed Advantages Disadvantages
No.
System
1 Air Cooling Forced natural Less Components, low Energy consumption
Air Cooling is price. is more.
used. Due to special
Variable inlet Air flow channels can arrangements, system
speed improve the cooling looks over-weighted.
arrangement and efficiency compared to Lowest heat capacity.
increased forced cooling.
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 9

reversing
frequency. Temperature controlled
Arrangement of improved by increasing
pin fins along inlet velocity.
the direction of Improvement in
airflow. temperature uniformity.
Changes in the
design of inlet
air flow
direction.
2 Liquid Indirect cooling Optimization of cooling Slightly difficult to
Cooling method plate to improvise thermal determine the optimal
(Water & conductivity. cooling plate for better
Oil) Changes in the performance.
diameter of the Optimized temperature
cooling tube, control can be achieved Maintenance cost is
inlet / outlet using structural design very high.
velocity, change. Equipment cost is
viscosity of the Uniform temperature high.
liquid, affects distribution can be High energy
the cooling achieved. consumption.
effects.

4.1 Experimental Result Analysis

The LiB is put through its paces during charging and discharging conditions at room temperature
as well as at varied temperatures. The temperature is controlled using air, water, and oil cooling systems.
The voltage and temperature are continuously measured in both the cooling and non-cooling
environments to analyze the temperature impacts. The variations in battery voltage and temperatures
under different time periods are obtained from the experimental analysis, and it is represented in the
Figures (5) & (6).

Figure 5. Voltage analysis with different timings

Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 10

Figure 6. Temperature analysis with different timings

When the battery was operated for an extended period of time, the temperature was not fully
controlled by air cooling. Heat generation might increase due to an increase in internal resistance.
Overcharging and internal short-circuiting occur as a result. To mitigate this effect, a multi-channel
coolant path is designed to increase the mass flow rate. Figure (4) clearly shows that the different cooling
methods have an effect on the cell voltage level. Furthermore, even after running the LiB for 300
minutes, the voltage variation is very small in oil cooling.
Figure (5) clearly depicts the temperature effects of LiB under various cooling methods. The heat
generation is not uniform over time under normal environmental temperature. The oil cooling method
regulates the uneven temperature variation and internal temperature rise. According to the results of the
analysis, the influence of temperature on the oil cooling method is very low when compared to other
methods. The Table (3) compares various cooling methods.

Table 3. Voltage and Temperature changes under different Cooling methods: Charging

Sl. Type of Change in Voltage (V) Change in Temperature (°C)

No Cooling Vmin Vmax ∆V= Vmax - Vmin Tmin Tmax ∆T= Tmax - Tmin
1 Without 21 26.5 5.5 34.3 37.5 3.2
Cooling
2 Water Cooling 21 26.2 5.2 33.5 35.6 2.1
3 Oil Cooling 21 26 5 33 34.7 1.7

In general, the overall heat generation is determined by the battery's entropic and ohmic heat
generation during charging and discharging. The state of charge and life of the battery will be harmed
primarily as a result of internally generated heat during discharging. The discharge is investigated in air,
water, and oil cooling environments. The variation in Voltage and Temperature is depicted in Figures
(7) and (8). The variation of the Voltage change is observed depending on the cooling methods and it is
understood that the oil cooling has the least variation. The Temperature profile is also investigated and
Figure (8) shows that oil cooling has the greatest influence and that the temperature is controlled. So, oil
cooling method is increasing the battery life by reducing the temperature during both charging as well
as discharging conditions.
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 11

Figure 7. Battery voltage analysis with different timings during discharge

Figure 8. Battery cooling effects during different timings of discharge

Table 4. Voltage and temperature change under different cooling methods: Discharging

Sl. Type of Change in Voltage (v) Change in Temperature (°C)

No Cooling Vmin Vmax ∆V= Vmax - Vmin Tmin Tmax ∆T= Tmax - Tmin
1 Without cooling 26.5 23.5 3 34.2 36.7 2.5
2 Water cooling 26.3 24.2 2.1 33.2 35.3 2.1
3 Oil cooling 26.2 24.4 1.8 32.7 34.2 1.5

Based on Table (2), it is clear that oil cooling outperforms all other cooling methods used in the
experiment. The change in voltage and change in temperature are minimum. As a result, for the constant
load application of LiB, the oil cooling method for temperature control can be preferred. The analysis of
the experiment results shows that during both charging and discharging, the oil cooling method takes
precedence over other methods in controlling the parameters such as Voltage and Temperature.

According to various literature, a forced-air cooling system is used to analyze the thermal influences of
cylindrical type LiFePO4 battery modules [19,22,23]. Whereas, the fixed air-cooling method is used in
the proposed method for the rectangular 32 cylindrical cell package LiFePO4 battery module. The
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 12

maximum temperature was kept constant at 45°C. The analysis is primarily concerned with the cell
spacing. In another study, rectangular longitudinal fins were used to control temperature from 15°C to
35°C for low power applications. A mini-channel liquid cooling cylinder was used to further reduce the
temperature effect. The maximum temperature remained constant at 40°C [30]. For a fixed mass flow
rate of 1 × 10−3 𝐾𝑔/𝑆. The temperature difference remained constant at 3.49°C. Fluorinated liquid
immersion cooling provides a maximum temperature rise of 34.5°C to some extent. It provides more
precise temperature control than forced air cooling [23]. The temperature change is investigated in this
proposed work both with and without cooling. During the charging conditions, the maximum
temperature was maintained at 37.5°C, 35.6°C, and 34.7°C for no-cooling, air-cooling, and liquid-
cooling, respectively. Similarly, the maximum temperature was maintained at 36.7°C, 35.3°C, and
34.2°C for no-cooling, air-cooling, and liquid-cooling, respectively, during discharging conditions.

4.2 MATLAB Simulation Results

Figure 9. Charging & Dis-charging under +20°C to -20°C ambient temperature

Figure 10. Cell temperature under +20°C to -20°C ambient temperature

Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 13

Figure 11. Charging & discharging under +30°C to -30°C ambient temperature

Figure 12. Cell temperature under +30°C to -30°C ambient temperature

From the simulation results shown in the figures 9,10,11 & 12, it is clearly understood that
different operating temperatures leads to variation in cell temperature. Also, when the battery is operated
for long periods, the cell temperature increases. At the same time, the variation in cell temperature leads
to changes in charging, discharging voltages and current as well. This is because of increase in internal
temperature. In this simulation, the battery is subjected to different ambient temperatures and analyzed
for varies parameter changes. The ambient temperature varied from -300C to +300C and the results show
the variation in cell temperature. It is decided to run the simulation for 2500 seconds completely. in
which, internal cell temperature drastically increased for every 500S.

Many researchers created a simulation platform to gain a better understanding of the internal properties
of LiB. According to them, the cell impedance was determined using an electrical equivalent circuit
model to estimate SOC, SOH, temperature, and C-rate [48]. A 3KW motor is connected to a 7.4KW
lithium-NMC battery for the performance analysis. The proposed work employs a MATLAB-Simulink
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 14

model to drive a 5HP/240V/1750 RPM DC motor. This analysis yields charging/discharging

characteristics, State of Charge (SOC) at various ambient temperatures, and motor torque characteristics.
Also, the pulse discharge test was also performed at room temperature with 10% SOC [31,33,49]. SOC
is accurately measured for a 3.7V LiB with a capacity of 2800mAh using 2nd order Thevenin's
equivalent estimation methods as well as a fractional order extended Kalman filter [50, 51]. The
proposed work's primary goal is to obtain cell temperature at various ambient temperatures and to
observe changes in cell temperature.

4.3 Contour Plot Analysis

As a two-dimensional plot, the Contour Plot helps to understand the parameter variation of three
the variables says x, y, z in which the influence of any third variable on other two will be analyzed. The
plot shows that the points that have the same response value are connected to produce contour lines;
from this the relationship between the factors can be analyzed. In this section, the analysis between
Temperature and Voltage with various time intervals is done using Contour Plot. Also, the environmental
temperature is taken into consideration for better understanding of thermal influence.

Table 5. Temperature effect of various cooling methods [2, 15, 26, 42-44]

Thermal
Sl.
management Points observed Issues
No.
System
1 Air Cooling It can keep maximum temperature Cannot be applied for high current
and temperature difference in ideal discharge.
range. Needs more efficient BTMS.
Uniformity in temperature control
Improved inlet velocity and not maintained when temperature is
increased space between cells to increased beyond the limit.
reduce temperature rise. Not much suitable for fast-charging
applications.
Temperature distribution was
improved

Heat generation rate was less than

3.75 × 105 W/ m3

Flow rate at 4 mL/s was found to be

the best for water-cooling system

Maximum temperature of the battery

pack could be controlled below 48.7
°C
The temperature difference between
the batteries was within 5 °C
Liquid The best cooling performance can be Temperature difference upto 6.1°C.
Cooling obtained when the inlet temperature
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 15

(Water & is 18° C and the width of the cooling

Oil Coolant) plate is 70 mm

To reduce the pressure, drop low

flow rate has been used in oil
cooling

To reduce freezing point of water, it

is mixed with glycol

1.5 to 3 times better cooling

efficiency

4.3.1 Contour Plot of Temperature effects over different time period

Figure 13 shows the influence of various temperatures over the voltage during different time
intervals. This analysis interprets the changes of cell voltages and temperature under the presence of
various cooling medium in the liquid cooling system. Figure 13(a) provides the effects of temperature
on the battery when there was no cooling system employed. In this, the battery is operated under room
temperature. Over a period of time, the cell voltage increases with increase in internal resistance. So, the
generated heat affects the battery performance and different parameter variations are observed with
various color changes. In this Figure13 (a), it clearly shows that there are no constant variations present
and the influence of temperature is at large levels. From this, it shows that the battery is at an unstable
state and there is a possibility of performance and safety issue.
Figure 3(b) shows that the battery is employed with water cooling system since water is
considered as one of the coolant mediums. Under this operation, the influence of temperature on the
battery performance is comparatively less. But, the generated heat in the battery over a period of time
makes the water coolant, not to conduct more heat outside; rather it also gets heated up. However, the
cooling effect is not that much effective and it directly affects the performance of the battery. And there
are also few abnormalities of the battery that are observed. To optimize this problem, instead of water,
a special cooling liquid is used and tested. In this, oil cooling provides a slightly improved performance
over a specified period of temperature.

Contour Plot of Time (min) vs voltage without , Temperature with Contour Plot of Time (min) vs voltage with wat, Temperature with
Time (min) Time (min)
< 0 < 0
26 0 – 50 26 0 – 50
50 – 100 50 – 100
100 – 150 100 – 150
voltage with water cooling (V)

150 – 200 150 – 200

voltage without cooling (V)

200 – 250 200 – 250

25 25
> 250 > 250

24 24

23
23

22
22

21
34.5 35.0 35.5 36.0 36.5 37.0 37.5 34.0 34.5 35.0 35.5 36.0
Temperature without cooling (℃ ) Temperature with water cooling

(a) (b)
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 16

Contour Plot of Time (min) vs voltage with oil, Temperature with

Time (min)
< 0
26 0 – 50
50 – 100
100 – 150
150 – 200

voltage with oil cooling (V)

200 – 250
25
> 250

24

23

22

33.5 34.0 34.5 35.0

Temperature with oil cooling (℃

(c)

Figure 13. Contour Plot of time vs. battery Voltage and Temperature influence during charging are
given as (a) provides without cooling effect of temperature and voltage variations (b) shows
water-cooling influence over temperature and voltage (c) shows oil-cooling effects on
temperature and voltage

This analysis is clearly shown in Fig.13 (c). Here, the temperature influence is drastically reduced
when oil is the coolant medium. Under this condition, the stability of the battery is more and the battery
shows improved performance. It enables the battery to work for a long life with higher cycle time. From
this analysis, the results show different thermal characteristics over different time periods and also shows
efficient cooling systems during charging conditions.
According to other researches, a 72.5 Ah NCM- Pouch Lithium-ion battery is triggered to thermal
runaway using the hot plate heating method. The statistical software Minitab was used to analyse the
thermal impact on battery performance and predict the thermal run-away trigger time [22]. The Response
Surface Method (RSM) is used in the proposed work to analyze thermal influence and identify safe
operating temperature ranges when the battery is used for fixed load operating conditions. This analysis
interprets the changes in cell voltages and temperature caused by different cooling mediums in the liquid
cooling system. Cell voltage increases with increasing internal resistance at room temperature. The best
coolant was identified experimentally for various coolants such as gas, liquid, and nanofluid, and the
maximum temperature distribution was analyzed using the Response Surface Method and the PSO
algorithms to fix the optimized temperature for safe operation [53]. The RSM analysis concludes from
the proposed work that the temperature influence was comparatively less when the coolant was water,
but it was not as effective. The temperature influence is greatly reduced when oil or other liquids are
used as coolants, and the battery is more stable for the applications.

4.4 Analysis of Environmental Influence

The variation of cell voltage with influence of temperature under various cooling medium during
discharging of the battery is shown in the figures14 (a), (b) & (c). The heat distribution inside and outside
of the cell is purely dependent on the type of coolant used in the liquid cooling system. The amount of
heat generated and distributed will affect the overall performance of the battery. However, the selection
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 17

of an effective cooling method for the battery is very essential, as each methods differs the total amount
of heat carried out from battery.

Contour Plot of Evn Temperature vs voltage without , Temperature with Contour Plot of Evn Temperature vs voltage with wat, Temperature with
26.5 Evn
Evn 26.2
Temperature Temperature
< 33.60 < 33.60
33.60 – 33.75 33.60 – 33.75
26.0 33.75 – 33.90 33.75 – 33.90
33.90 – 34.05 33.90 – 34.05
25.7

voltage with water cooling

34.05 – 34.20 34.05 – 34.20
voltage without cooling

> 34.20 > 34.20

25.5

25.2

25.0

24.7
24.5

24.0 24.2

34.5 35.0 35.5 36.0 36.5 33.5 34.0 34.5 35.0 35.5
Temperature without Cooling Temperature with water Cooling

(a) (b)

Contour Plot of Evn Temperature vs voltage with oil, Temperature with

Evn
Temperature
26.00 < 33.60
33.60 – 33.75
33.75 – 33.90
25.75 33.90 – 34.05
34.05 – 34.20
voltage with oil cooling

> 34.20
25.50

25.25

25.00

24.75

24.50

33.00 33.25 33.50 33.75 34.00 34.25 34.50

Temperature with oil Cooling

(c) shows the oil-cooling effects on temperature and voltage.

Figure 14. Contour Plot of environmental temperature vs. battery voltage and temperature influence
during discharge are given as (a) provides without cooling effect of temperature and voltage
variations (b) shows water-cooling influence over temperature and voltage (c) Shows the oil-
cooling effects on Temperature and Voltage

In this, Figure 14 shows the various thermal influences over different environmental
temperatures with different cooling liquids. First the Contour Plot Figure 14 (a) shows the voltage and
temperature variations of battery under no cooling condition. As time varies the influence is getting
increased. The steady state of battery is changing over temperature. Likewise, in Figure 14(b) the
stability of the battery is increased compared with no-cooling condition. The stability of the battery is
higher in the oil cooling method, which enables the best operation of the battery. This change is clearly
observed in Figure 14(c), that different temperature ranges in the battery are producing stable
performance. But it still needs an improvement which can be obtained by choosing the best combination
of cooling liquids.
Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 17 (2022) Article Number: 220810 18

The properties of LiB are alerted by environmental temperature. The performance of the battery
varies due to temperature changes in different geographical locations. For the temperature range of -
10°C to 30°C [54-55], the lumped battery model was proposed to estimate SOC accurately using
recursive least squares and the Extended Kalman filter [55]. For the best estimation of battery parameters
under varying ambient temperatures ranging from 0°C to 50°C, a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) –
recurrent neural network is used [56]. The proposed work shows that when an oil cooling system is used,
the temperature influence on battery performance is reduced. The oil cooling method increases battery
stability, allowing for the best battery operation.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Lithium-ion batteries are the mainstay of numerous applications, particularly in the field of
electric vehicles. However, the system's performance is good as long as the temperature is kept within
the stipulated range of 15°C to 35°C. Extending the temperature range causes unanticipated events in
both the battery and the system. As a result, a LiFeO4 LiB with a 3.2 V/ 6Ah capacity was used in this
study. The nominal voltage and capacity are respectively 24 V and 48mAh. The temperature analysis
for a 1KW light load under various climatic circumstances is based on the experimentation. MATLAB
Simulation and Minitab Simulation Tools are used to validate the data received from the experiment.
MATLAB is used to run the setup for a 5HP/240V/1750 RPM DC motor load under -25, -20, 0, 20, 30,
and 35-degrees ambient temperatures to analyze the variation in cell temperature. The temperature effect
over different time periods is clearly analyzed using the Minitab tool from the Contour Plot. When oil is
used as a coolant medium, the temperature influence is greatly reduced. Under these conditions, the
battery's stability improves and its performance improves, enabling it to work for longer periods of time
with a higher cycle time. The results of this analysis show different thermal characteristics over different
time periods, as well as efficient cooling systems during charging conditions. The temperature influence
is less in oil cooling compared to air- and water-cooling methods, indicating that the battery's stability
is higher. Further improvement in temperature influence may be obtained by selecting different ratios of
cooling medium and cooling materials.

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