CLL231: Fluid Mechanics for Chemical

Engineers

Somnath Ghosh
[email protected]

Video: https://www.youtube.com/
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 Flow past immersed objects
(Munson Ch9 (8th Ed.); White Ch: 7 (7th Ed.) )

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Laminar boundary layer: equation of BL
5.0𝑥
From Blasius, we obtained: 𝛿≈ (laminar BL thickness)
𝑅𝑒𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜌𝜇
also, shear stress at the wall: 𝜏𝑤 = 𝜇 = 0.332 𝑈∞ 2/3 (from Blasius)
𝜕𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑦=0 𝑥
𝜏𝑤 is also related to coefficient of skin friction, 𝑐𝑓
𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏𝑤 1
𝑐𝑓 = = ⇒ 𝜏𝑤 = 𝑐𝑓 𝜌𝑈∞ 2
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 1 2
𝜌𝑈∞ 2
2
1 2 𝜌𝜇 2/3 0.664
𝑐𝑓 𝜌𝑈∞ = 0.332 𝑈∞ ⇒ 𝑐𝑓 =
2 𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥: 𝐹𝐷𝑥 = න 𝜏𝑤 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑏 න 𝜏𝑤 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝑥 𝜌𝜇
plug in Blasius expression of 𝜏𝑤 : 𝐹𝐷𝑥 = 𝑏 ‫׬‬0 0.332 𝑈∞ 2/3 𝑑𝑥 = 0.664𝑏 𝜌𝜇𝑥𝑈∞ 2/3
𝑥

total drag on the entire plate (L): 𝐹𝐷 = 0.664𝑏 𝜌𝜇𝐿𝑈∞ 2/3

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Laminar boundary layer: equation of BL
total drag on the entire plate (L): 𝐹𝐷 = 0.664𝑏 𝜌𝜇𝐿𝑈∞ 2/3
also, (as we know) if the projected area of a surface is ‘A’ and experience a drag
force ‘FD’ from a flowing fluid of density ‘ρ’ and velocity ‘U∞’ ; then the drag
𝐹 /𝐴
coefficient is defined as: 𝐶𝐷 = 1 𝐷 2
2
𝜌𝑈∞
1
⇒ 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑏𝐿𝜌𝑈∞ 2 = 0.664𝑏 𝜌𝜇𝐿𝑈∞ 2/3
2

𝜌𝜇𝐿𝑈∞ 2/3 𝜇 1.328

⇒ 𝐶𝐷 = 1.328 = 1.328 = = 2𝑐𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝐿𝜌𝑈∞ 2 𝜌𝑈∞ 𝐿 𝑅𝑒𝐿
for external flow over a flat plate and laminar BL: Re ≤5×105
5.0𝑥 𝜌𝜇 2 1 2 0.664
𝛿≈ ; 𝜏𝑤 = 0.332 𝑈∞ 3 = 𝑐𝑓 𝜌𝑈∞ ; 𝑐𝑓 =
𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑅𝑒𝑥
2/3 1 2 1.328
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝐷 = 0.664𝑏 𝜌𝜇𝐿𝑈∞ = 𝐶𝐷 𝑏𝐿𝜌𝑈∞ ; 𝐶𝐷 =
2 𝑅𝑒𝐿
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Boundary layer: other thicknesses
So far, we discussed about BL thickness; there are other two important thicknesses are defined for BL.
𝛿 → 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝛿 ∗ → 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠; 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡.
𝜃 → 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠; 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝛿 ∗ )
Due to velocity deficit 𝑈∞ − u at the BL, there is a mass deficit
∞ ∞
‫׬‬0 𝜌 𝑈∞ − 𝑢 𝑏𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑈∞ 𝑏 ‫׬‬0 1 − 𝑈𝑢 𝑑𝑦
∞

= 𝜌𝑈 𝑏𝛿 ∗
𝜹∗ ∞
∞
∗
𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝛿 = න 1 − 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈∞
So, 𝛿 ∗ is defined by the mass deficit due to the BL; hypothetically, if we have ideal (inviscid) flow that
mirrors the boundary layer, then the thickness of the plate need to be increased by 𝛿 ∗ in order to
adjust the mass deficit.
𝛿 1.721𝑥 1.83𝑥
From Karman analysis, it has been observed: 𝛿∗ ≈ ⇒ 𝛿∗ ≈ ; 𝛿∗ ≈
3 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑥 5
Boundary layer: other thicknesses
So far, we discussed about BL thickness; there are other two important thicknesses are defined for BL.
𝛿 → 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝛿 ∗ → 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠; 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡.
𝜃 → 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠; 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡.
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝜃)
Due to velocity deficit (U∞-u) at the BL, there will be a momentum
U∞ deficit at the exit of the control volume. So, the momentum deficit
at the exit: 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑜𝑢𝑡
∞
න𝜌𝑢 𝑈∞ − 𝑢 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑏 න 𝑢 𝑈∞ − 𝑢 𝑑𝑦
∞ 0
𝜌𝑈∞ 2 𝑏𝜃 = 𝜌𝑏 න 𝑢 𝑈∞ − 𝑢 𝑑𝑦
∞ 0
𝑢 𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜃 = න 1− 𝑑𝑦 5.0𝑥 ∗
1.721𝑥 0.664
0 𝑈∞ 𝑈∞ 𝛿≈ ;𝛿 ≈ ;𝜃 ≈
𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑥
0.664 𝛿 > 𝛿∗ > 𝜃
𝜃≈
𝑅𝑒𝑥
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Turbulent boundary layer
There is no exact solution for turbulent BL. Generally, numerical and
computational methods are used to determine different parameters for turbulent
BL. Based on Prandtl’s suggestion; velocity profile for turbulent BL is
approximated as: 𝑢 𝑦 1/7
=
𝑈∞ 𝛿
using integral approach (based on von Karman boundary-layer concept); it is found that:
0.16𝑥
𝛿 ≈ 1/7
𝑅𝑒
6 13 1/7
𝜇𝜌 𝑈∞ 0.027
𝜏𝑤 = 0.0135 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑓 =
𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑥 1/7
1 2 0.031
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑏𝐿𝜌𝑈∞ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝐷 =
2 𝑅𝑒𝐿 1/7

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒;

1 2 0.031 1440
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑏𝐿𝜌𝑈∞ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝐷 = 1/7
−
2 𝑅𝑒𝐿 𝑅𝑒𝐿
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Forces on submerged bodies
When a fluid moves around an object, or an object moves through a stationary fluid; the fluid
exerts a force (Fn)on the object. Drag forces are generated due to two different types of stresses
that act on the surface of an object.
FL
Fn

FD

FDs>>FDp
In general; total drag coefficient, CD= CDs + CDp
Drag force: resultant of these two stresses in the flow direction.
Lift force: resultant of these two stresses, normal to the flow direction.
FDs<<FDp
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Forces on submerged bodies

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Boundary layer separation
For Blasius analysis, we have noticed that the pressure is assumed to be nearly constant. But variation
of pressure may occur within the BL.

no BL separation BL separation

BL separation and backflow

White; chap 7; p478 10

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4gr-y8jyFM
Flow over sphere/tube

Laminar flow Turbulent flow Re ~ 1 5<Re<50

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortex_shedding
60<Re<5000

5000<Re<150000 Re>150000

Munson ; chap 9; p501

White; chap 7; p488

White; chap 7; p486

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Flow over sphere/tube

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XyMDwLLa7pA 12
Flow over sphere/tube
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𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒 ~ 1; 𝐶𝐷 =
𝑅𝑒
At these low Re; flow separation does not occur, even
for very blunt bodies. So, all the drag comes from
friction drag.
1
𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑈∞ 2 𝐴
2
1 24 2 1 24
⇒ 𝐹𝐷 = 𝜌𝑈∞ 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑈∞ 2 𝐴
2 𝑅𝑒 2 𝐷𝑈∞ 𝜌
𝜇
White; chap 7; p488 12𝜇 𝐷2
= 𝑈∞ 𝜋 = 3𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑈∞
𝐷 4
Stokes Law. This is the exact solution for drag force acting on a sphere
𝑠𝑜, 𝐹𝐷 = 3𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑈∞
(creeping flow).
This expression also leads to the Stokes–Einstein equation of Brownian diffusion:
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐷𝐵 = 13
6𝜋𝜇𝑎
Motion of a particle through fluid
Stokes law and drag coefficient can also be used to calculate the terminal velocity of a falling body
through a fluid medium (Re<1). Initially, the velocity of the body will increase and so as the drag
force. Terminal velocity is reached when the weight of the body perfectly
balances the opposing force (buoyancy +drag)
𝑑𝑢
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢
෍𝐹 = 𝑚 = 𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝑏 − 𝐹𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑚 𝑢2
𝑛𝑜𝑤; 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔; 𝐹𝑏 = 𝜌 𝑔; 𝐹𝑑 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑝 𝜌
𝜌𝑝 2
𝑑𝑢 𝑚 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢 ∆𝜌 𝑢2
𝑠𝑜; 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝜌 𝑔 − 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑝 𝜌 ⇒ = 𝑔 − 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑝 𝜌 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ∆𝜌 = 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑝 2 𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑝 2𝑚
In this situation, particle quickly reaches to a constant velocity; that is the maximum attainable velocity called
𝑑𝑢
terminal velocity(ut). For gravitational settling, = 0;
𝑑𝑡
∆𝜌 𝑢𝑡 2 2𝑔∆𝜌𝑚
𝑔 − 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑝 𝜌 =0 ⇒ 𝑢𝑡 =
𝜌𝑝 2𝑚 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝜌 14
Motion of a particle through fluid
𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐷 = 2𝑟
1 3 1 2 24
𝑠𝑜, 𝑚 = 𝜋𝐷𝑝 𝜌 ; 𝐴𝑝 = 𝜋𝐷𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝑤
6 4 𝑅𝑒
2 4
2𝑔∆𝜌𝑚 2 ∆𝜌𝑔𝑟 6𝜋𝜇𝑟𝑢𝑡 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌 𝑔
⇒ 𝑢𝑡 = = 3
𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝜌 9 𝜇
2 ∆𝜌𝑔𝑟 2
𝑢𝑡 =
9 𝜇
This equation is used to create a viscometer that measures the viscosity of
a fluid. To do this, a sphere is dropped through a long tube of fluid; it is
long enough that the sphere will reach the terminal velocity. The terminal
velocity can be measured by timing how long it takes the sphere to pass
between two points marked on the tube. So, the viscosity of the fluid can
be calculated from the terminal velocity equation.

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