Unit Summary

Thursday, March 21, 2024 4:39 PM

• Ussher • Lord Kelvin

○ used Bible (Genesis) + astronomy ○ assumed Earth = gradually cooled from molten mass
○ predicted Earth created Sunday, October 23, 4004 BC, at 9 am ○ estimated Earth to be 15-20 mil yrs old
• Pierre Curie • Hutton
○ found radioactive decay Kevin’s theory wrong ○ idea of uniformitarianism (Lyell’s term): subtle processes (at
○ radiometric dating: “Earth 4.6 bil yrs old” today’s rates) produce substantial biologic changes (geological
• Lyell features) Earth mil years old
○ Principles of Geology ○ “present key to past”
○ w/ Hutton, 2 significant conclusions: • Cuvier
§ Earth is very old (ppl. just thought thousands) ○ catastrophism: each strata (fossil) region represents a
§ Dramatic change could result over LONG periods of time through catastrophe where many species destroyed at a time
slow, slight processes (ie. smoothing down of mountain ranges by ○ cause extinction, replaced by neighbouring species
erosion) - THEORY OF CHANGE • Malthus
• Lamarck ○ Malthus wrote about: a growing world population = scarcity of
○ theory of use and disuse: used body parts = stronger & larger, unused resources - population outstrips food available so
b.p. = detoriate (ie. giraffes extending necks to eat leaves) RECOURSES ARE LIMITED & not sustain everyone
○ theory of acquired characteristics: modified traits get passed onto § Malthus got Darwin thinking: pressure of limited food
offspring thru some unknown way (ie. long necks) affects animal population (competition arises, some ind. get
○ animals evolve via adaptation to increase survival/reproductiom higher chance to survive based on certain, favourable traits)
*theories proven INCORRECT: traits developed over lifetime not
inheritable, didn’t understand basics of genetic inheritance

• Proposed: evolution is drived by natural selection … explains how adaptations arise

○ natural selection: members of same species have limited resources, so individuals w/ certain, desirable traits = increases chance of
surviving/reproducing
§ adaptation: desirable traits in a species (in favour of n.s.) that makes spp. well suited for suvival/reproduction (ie. Galapagos finch beaks
diff. based on environment’s foods, such as cactus-eater vs insectivourous beaks)
• species: biological definition = group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offsprings
§ taxonomy: organisms are grouped by similarities (similar teeth, look similar)
§ scientific name for “humans”: Homosapiens | Homo (genus) sapiens (species) and UNDERLINE
dwarfism is favoured on islands: better
chance of survival b/c not needa eat much to
survive and do well since FOOD
selective pressures = forces in the enviornment that have the ability to influences animals in terms of producing offspring (food, climate, water) PRESSURE, SCARCITY OF RESOURCES

reproductive successes = living long enough to produce offspring, traits to next generation

• Influenced by Hutton & Lyell’s ideas … environment has much impact on organisms!

- biogeography: geographical distribution of plants and animals (remote islands populated by species that evolved from spp. travelling from mainlands.)
• Sailed to South America on HMS Beagle, accepted by Captain Fitzroy (hoped to support biblical creation)
• 3 patterns noticed by finding specimens:
○ species vary globally: look & act similar, similar habitats, different continents
○ species vary locally: related spp in diff habitats (same local environment) hv diff features, esp in islands
○ species vary over time: modern-day animals are versions of ancestral species (from fossils)

• Additional findings:
○ earthquake caused shoreline mussels to lift 3m, supported that natural events can lead to formation of mountain chains
○ 25 of 26 Galapagos birds were diff spp b/c diff islands from mainland, S. Am.
○ homologous features = structures sharing common origin but diff functions (ie. dolphin flippers & human hands) *organisms w/ homologous
ft likely shared a more recent common ancestor than analogous
○ analagous features = structures w similar functions but not in same origin/anatomy (ie. wings of birds & bees)
○ vestigal features = structures serving no useful function (ie. digits in dogs)
○ read Malthus’ theory of evolution: populations grow much faster than rate of resources being produced | offsprings overproduce | competition
between offsprings occur
○ found unique spp., questioned extinction

Observation #1: lots of variation among ind. within spp. (Breeders & Taxonomists)
Observation #2: variartion in traits CAN be inherited (Breeders)
Observation #3: every gen. produces more offspring than can survive (Malthus)
Observation #4: populations remain stable in size (Malthus)

Inference #1: members in same spp. compete w/ eo to survive

Inference #2: survival not random; ind. w/ favourable variations likely to survive & reproduce (survival of the fittest, natural selection)
Inference #3: ind. w/ fav. traits have more offspring, that fav. variation thus becomes more common

5 observations: 2 inferences:
• in each gen., pop. produce more 1. individuals within a population compete for
offspring than # of adults resources
• pop. do not grow in size (death & life
balance a certain #) 2. Some individuals will inherit certain traits
• food & resources limited giving them a better chance of surviving &
• ind. in pop. vary reproducing (fit)
• many variations ARE heritable

1. Inherited variation
2. Changing environment favours some traits over others

Darwin’s book, On The Origin of Species caused scientists to discover but also question…
Was Earth rlly old enough for natural selection to hv worked?
Yes, 4.6 billion yrs old
How could gaps in fossil record be explained?
Discovery of new fossil evidence has filled many gaps
What was the source of inherited variation?
Modern genetics: mutations (positive) and recombinant

• initial cause of all variation: MUTATION

○ variation: 2 diff. biological parents => diff. combo. of genes inherited
○ mutation: random change to base sequence of 1+ genes
§ passed on if occurred in GAMETES not somatic cells
*antibotic resistance in bacteria: presence of antib. in bacteria PRESSURES bact. to ADAPT via GENETIC MUTATION
(bact. can gain gene for anti. resistance & pass on gene rapidly) - important to take full duration of perscription (if resistance
gene gained, antibiotic won’t work next time)
○ selective advantage: genetic advantage of an org. over competitors b/c of a fav. trait in env. (ie. pesticide resistance in flies)
• variation includes structural, functional, or physiological adaptations
○ structural (opposable thumb)
○ behavioural (hibernation)
○ physiological (venom)
○ mimicry (Massassauga Rattler - Fox snakes) —— + camoflauge + toxins (chemical features) help animals
§ mimicry: harmless org. resemble harmful org. in colouration/structure to avoid predators

• when selection advantage is common in a trait within a pop. => natural selection
○ natural selection: org. w/ selective advantages more likely survive, reproduce, and pass on traits
§ Result of…selective pressures (biotic factors, comp. for resources, predators)
§ Results in…well adapted pop. to its env., mutation enhances reproduction
§ Deponds on…situation—selective adv. may be benefit in one env. but not another
§ Only in…populations w/ variation (otherwise extinct)
§ Does not…cause change in INDIVIDUALS
(INDIVIDUALS DO NOT EVOLVE, POPULATIONS DO)
- fitness: measured by # of FERTILE offspring produced in next gen. (reproduction ability)

• artificial selection: changes to population caused by DELIBERATE, selective breeding by HUMANS involving
traits in animals/plants DESIRABLE to humans (not traits to necessarily to increase pop.’s fitness)
○ form of biotechnology (use of tech & org. to create/modify)
§ involves transgenics (genetic material from one org. to another)
○ gene banks: facilities storing genetic material
§ perserves diversity (can’t do all)
§ conserves endangered species
§ for research
□ ie. Canadian Genetic Resources Program (CGRP) in Saskatoon: cryopreserving

• evolution: “descent with modification”, Darwin’s term | = genetic change occuring in a pop. of org. over generations
idea failed to be accepted because…
1. West believed in an UNCHANGING universe from Old Testament (all life is IMMUTABLE) => CREATIONISM, risky to go against
2. physical modifications occur so slowly, difficult to convince
3. traveling to variety of life on Earth was uncommon until 18TH CENTURY, THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT AND EUROPEAN EXPANSION

• 1831, Charles Darwin to S. America Coast on HMS Beagle, finding mechacnisim supporting evolution: NATURAL SELECTION
2 key elements to theory of Evolution by Natural Selection:
§ MUTATIONS cause VARIATION among ind., mutations are source of NEW genetic material
§ CHANGING ENVIRONMENT favours traits over others (NATURE selects which variation is desired)
ie. INDUSTRIAL MELANISM (2 forms of a moth spp. B & W… W camoflauged w/ the light trees (uneaten), industrial revolution came &
darkened trees, B moths started camoflauging (uneaten) | spp.’s traits favoured depending on environment at given time)

• 5 main lines of evidence supporting evolution:

○ BIOCHEMISTRY: present org. descened from common ancestor hv similarities MOLECULAR LEVEL (ie. amino acid in chimps and human same)

*embryonic development patterns suggests

evolutionary relationship betw. spp. (we all
kinda start alike!)

○ FOSSIL RECORD: simpler/older org. seen in lower STRATA of rock, more complex/older in higher strata (ie. armidillo & glyptodon)

○ GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS: ADAPTIVE RADIATION: org. first ISOLATED from ancestral mainland spp. then ADAPT
to conditions of particular isl., unsuitable dying off

○ COMPARATIVE ANATOMY:
§ HOMOLOGOUS structures: similar structure/origin, diff. function
§ ANALOGOUS structures: diff structure/origin, similar function
§ VESTIGIAL structures: non-functioning/useful structures, indicates used by ancestral spp.
□ H and V represent close ancestry, A does not

○ ARTIFICIAL SELECTION: biotech/agricyltural practices (pesticides/antibiotics) speed up evolution

microevolution: a change in ALLELE FREQUENCIES in a pop. over generations (maco for larger changes)
TWO PROCESSES, mutation and sexual reproduction cause genetic variation (differences among ind.)

genetic variation:
• variation in geno. => variation in pheno
• not all pheno. variation heritable (ie. sun = tan, nutrients provided = better skin)

mutation: changes in nucleotide sequence of DNA

• causes new genes + alleles
• only mutations in cells producing gametes can pass to offspring
• mutation rates low in animals/plants (one mutation in 100,000 genes per gen.), high in viruses
○ point mutation: change in ONE base in a gene (ie. base pair subsitution & framshift)
○ in introns (noncoding & 98%) => harmless | might not affect protein production
○ if mut. DOES change protein production => harmful
§ sometimes increases fitness (bacteria resisting to antibiotics)
○ if c/somal mut. delete, disrupt, duplicate many segments, rearrange many loci => harmful

sexual reproduction:
- can shuffle existing alleles into new combos (independent assortment, crossing over, random fertillization - 64 trillion combos)
- in org. reproducing sexually, sexual reproduction more important in creating genetic variation than mutations are (for adapting)

H.W. equation can be used to test WHETHER A POPULATION IS EVOLVING

by “population”: localized group of individuals capable of interbreeding & producing fertile offspring
• gene pool: ALL alleles within ALL loci in a population
- H.W. equation describes population NOT evolving (p and q are used to represent allele frequences, p for dom., q for rec.)

- H.W. principle describes hyopthetical population: in all pop. allele/geno. freq. DO change over time
○ 5 conditions for non-evolving pop. rarely met in nature:
§ no mutations
§ random mating
§ no natural selection (if no mut., no n.s.)
§ extremely large pop. size
§ no gene flow (no immigration & emigration)

Factors that CHANGE allele frequencies in populations:

• MUTATION: change occuring in DNA, when passed (GAMETIC MUTATION), can affect entire gene pool
• GENE FLOW: transfer of alleles place-place (migration)
• NON-RANDOM MATING => SEXUAL SELECTION: when ind. SELECT mates based on phenotypes, can increase that specific allele frequency | CON - can attract predators too
• GENETIC DRIFT: “change in allele frequencies of a gene pool DUE TO CHANCE EVENTS”
○ GENETIC DRIFT - FOUNDER EFFECT: when few ind. find colony only THEIR genetic diversity out of entire population represented BY CHANCE
○ GENETIC DRIFT - BOTTLENECK EFFECT: when natural disaster/human interferance cause pop. to almost go EXTINCT, prevents majority genotypes from producing in next
generation as survivors are DICTATED BY CHANCE (bottleneck)
• NATURAL SELECTION: env. selecting for ind. in a pop. w/ traits making them better suited to survive & reproduce w/ others in that pop.

• STABILIZING SELECTION: the intermediate (in between) trait is favoured by environment

○ extreme phenotypes selected against
○ results in narrower phenotype range
○ can improve adaptation to environment
○ ie.most babies are average in weight, if under = premature, if over = risk to mom and baby

• DIRECTIONAL SELECTION: at one end of range, more extreme side of the trait (high or low, not intermediate)
○ results in a shifted range of phenotypes
○ can occur as an adaptation method to environment
○ ie. most hummingbirds have LONG beaks

• DISRUPTIVE SELECTION: favours opposite extremes, never intermediate

○ environment favours more than one phenotype
○ split gene pool
○ sometimes new spp. arise
○ ie. if env. has both small & large flowers, small and large beaks favoured over medium

Speciation: origin of NEW species | focus of the study of macroevolution, results in macroevolution
Microevolution: changes in allele frequencies in populations (over time)
Macroevolution: ^ by contrast, refers to DRAMATIC biological changes (many evident in fossil records)
changes include…
} origin of diff. spp.
} extinction of spp.
} evolution of major, new features on org. (ie. new wings)
Species: Latin word “kind” or “appearance” | members of INTERBREEDING populations REPRODUCTIVELY ISOLATED from other groups & evolve independantly (ie. gene flow occurs WITHIN spp. not betw. other spp.)
to detect a species:
§ biological spp. concept: if interbreeding is possible to produce viable, fertile offspring (modern def. - only applies to sexual organisms)
§ similar morpholgy (phys. appearance)
§ common behaviours (mating rituals, bird dances)
§ biologically - biochemistry - DNA sequences (by reproductive isolating mehcanisms)
other definitions of species:
§ morphological spp. concept: defines spp. by STRUCTURAL featyres (asexual & sexual, subjective)
§ ecological spp. concept: defines spp. by ECOLOGICAL NICHE (asx, sx, role of disruptive selection)
§ phylogenetic spp. concept: defines spp. as SMALLEST GROUP of ind. on a PHYLOGENETIC TREE (asx, sx, difficult to detetmine degree of diff. required for grouping)
Reproductive isolating mechanisms: BIOLOGICAL FACTORS (BARRIERS) like any behvioural, structural, or biochemical traits PREVENTING ind. of diff. spp. from. REPRODUCING SUCESSFULLY (producing viable, fertile offspring) together
Hybrids: offspring of crosses betw. 2 diff. spp. w/ incomplete reproductive barriers - reduced fitness compared to parent spp.

AKA ecological isolation: breeding times of day, courtship rituals, other morphological differences / fertilization of 2 gametes impairment of hybrid’s hybrid can be healthy first-gen. hybrids may
different habitats/niches seasons, and years diff. behaviors unique to spp. incompatibilities preventing cannot occur (sperm -> development cuz of but infertile (sterile) be fertile, but offspring
differ from successful mating egg = zygote) parents’ diff. genes CANNOT PRODUCE they produce (w/
OFFSPRING another spp. or either
parents’ spp.) are sterile
or feeble
& don’t last

allopatric (other country) speciation: populations of a species become geographically isolated from each other by physical barriers such as rivers, mountains, or other
forms of geographic separation. As a result, gene flow between the separated populations is restricted. | Even if contact restored, interbreeding prevented.
example: Galápagos archipelago have distinct finch populations due to geographic isolation, leading to the evolution of various beak shapes and sizes adapted to
different diets.
process: the definition of barrier depends on the ability of a pop. to disperse (ie. camypm is barrier for rodents but not birds)
- separate pop. may evolve independently (mut., n.s., genetic drift)
- reproductive isolation may arise from genetic divergence
- regions with more geographic barriers = more species
- reproductive isolation betw. pop. increases as distance betw. them increase
- barriers to reproduction are INTRINSIC (seperation itself is not a biological barrier)
sympatric (same country) speciation: evolution of pop. within same (overlapping) geographic area into separate spp. | no physical barrier to gene flow | due to
chromosomal change (polyploidy)
example: diploid/tetraploid tree frogs
polyploidy: presence of extra c/s b/c of accidents during cell division (common in plants like cotton potatoes than animals)
autopolyploid: individual w/ more than 2 c/s sets derived from one spp.
allopolyploid: spp. w/ multiple sets of c/s derived from diff. spp.
sexual selection: can drive sympatric speciation
habitat differentiation: can result from appearance of new ecological niches (N.A. maggot fly can live on native hawthorn trees AND recent apple trees)

H.Z. reveal factors that cause reproductive isolation

• hybrid zone: region in which members of diff. spp. mate and produce hybrids
○ can occur in a single band where adjacent spp. meet (below) or complex if p. spp. in patches within same region

○ 3 possible outcomes when related spp. meet in hybrid zone: REINFORCEMENT, FUSION, STABILITY
• reinforcement | strengthening reproductive barriers:
○ when hybrids less fit than parent spp.
○ rate of hybridization decreases OT
○ reproducive barriers become stronger for sympatric than allopatric species
• fusion | weakening reproductive barriers:
○ when hybrids as fit as parents => substantial gene flow betw. species
○ if gene flow enough, parent species can fuse into single spp.
• stability | continued formation of hybrid individuals:
○ genes mixed result in stable, balanced, genetic makeups

- patterns in fossil record: incl. spp. appearing suddently, persist unchanged for time, then just disappear
- Niles Eldredge & Stephen Jay Gould => “punctuated equilibria” (describes times when things stay same in spp., then consistency
interuppted by sudden & significant change)
○ contrasts w/ model of gradual change in species’ existence

○ punctuated pattern suggets speciation can be RAPID

○ interval betw. speciation can range from 4000 years - 40 million years (6.5 million as avg)

- studying genetics of speciation: depending on species, even change of a SINGLE allele can cause speciation, but always diff:
○ In Japanese Euhadra snails, mating behavior is influenced by the spiral direction of their shells, determined by a single gene.
○ In monkey flowers (Mimulus), flower color, impacting pollinator preference, is controlled by two genetic loci.
○ Dominance of hummingbirds or bees in pollination can cause reproductive isolation in flowers.
○ Speciation in certain species can result from interactions among multiple genes.

- fossil record shows macroevolutionary changes over large time scales

simple cells came to be by: 1. abiotic synth. of organic. mol. 2. these mol. join into macromolecules 3. molecules package into protocells 4. cells began self-replicating
Primordial (Beginning of) Earth
• Earth 4.6 bill y/o
• PREBIOTIC (pre-life existence) atmosphere contained CO, CO2, NH3, CH4, H2, N2, and H2O(g), but NOOOOO O2
Theory of Abiogenesis
Russian biochemist, Omarion & British biologist, Haldane purposed theory of PRIMARY ABIOGENESIS: “first LIVING things on
Earth, organic molecules, arose from NON-LIVING material”
• organic molecules: things that contain carbon (proteins, lipids)
Miller-Urey Experiment
1953, by Miller and Urey simulated PREMORDIAL EARTH conditions: gases of prem. Earth into flash, electric sparks (the “lightning”)
gave gas molecules energy to break apart & recombine, condensation collected showed that INORGANIC GAS MOLECULES
REARRANGED TO PRODUCE ORGANIC MOLECULES like amino acids, essential sugars, vitamins, and FOUR NITROGEN
BASES OF DNA & RNA were found later on (ABIOTIC SYNTHESIS)
Protocells
• precursors to cells
• fluid-filled vesicles w/ membrane-like structure
• replication/metabolism are key properties of life, appeared tg?
Origin of Natural Selection
• first came RNA, not DNA (provided template for DNA)
• RNA, ribozymes catalyze many diff. reactions
• N.S. produced self-replicating RNA mol.

- oldest known fossils, stromatolites resemble present anaerobic (w/o oxygen) cyanobacteria
- once photosynthetic prokaryotic cells evolved (3.5 bill y ago) OXYGEN GAS began to accumulate in Earth’s atmosphere
(allowed for aerobic capacities)
- eukaryotic cells developed from prokaryotic cells by 2 processes:
1. infolding of the cell membrane: INTERNALIZES CELL MEMBRANE becoming the MEMBRANE BOUND
ORGANELLES inside eukaryotic organisms (allowing for more complex reactions inside the cell)
2. endosymbiosis: mitochondria/chlorplasts (energy producers) not present in ancestral eurkaryotic cells
suggestion: these 2 organelles were once PROKARYOTES ingested by a eukaryote then the organelles
remained in the cell producing energy for it (cell respiration & photo synthesis respectively)
- billions years later, euk. started reproducing sexually —> MULTICELLULAR org. began evolving & —> algae, plants,
fungi, animals
serial emdosymbiosis: “mitochondria evolved before plastids through sequence of endosymbiosis events”
- key evidence to this:
○ inner memb. similar to plasma memb. of prokaryotes
○ division similar
○ these organelles transcribe and translate their own DNA
○ their ribosomes more similar to prokaryotic than eukaryotic ribs.

sedimentary rocks hv. layers, called strata, richest source of fossils

fossil record biased in favor of species that
○ existed for long
○ abundant & widespread
○ hard parts (ie. not jellyfish)
How Rocks & Fossils are Dated
- strata but also RADIOMETRIC DATING helps w/ age of fossil
○ parents isotope have a half-life, when it decays into daughter isotope
Origin of New Groups of Organisms
- mammals in TETRAPODS (the group)
- evolution of mammalian features can be compared

- cambrian explosion: sudden appearance of fossils resembling modern animal phyla in Cambrian period
Colonization of Land
- fungi, plants, animals colonized land
- arthropods and tetrapods most widespread, diverse land animals
- tetrapods “evolved” from lobe-finned fishes

Plate Tectonics
“Earth’s crust composed of plates floating on Earth’s mantle
- plates move slowly through CONTINENTAL DRIFT
- oceanic & continental plates can collide, separate, or slide past e/o
○ causes formation of mountains, islands, earthquakes
Consequences of Continental Drift
- formation of supercontinent “Pangaea” had many effects
- geological effects
○ deepening of ocean basins
○ reduction in shallow water habitat
○ colder and drier climate inland
- effects on living org.:
○ continent’s climate change, disturbance to animal’s hibernation, migration, food resources, etc.
○ seperation of land masses lead to allopatric speciation
Mass Extinctions
- most spp. from fossil record now extinct
- changes to species’ env. causes extinction
- mass extinction (dramatic rate of ext.) caused by global env. changes
§ ie. Permian mass extinction betw. Paleozoic & Mesozoic eras caused 96% of marine animals extinction b/c of
○ intense volcanism
○ global warming (lots of CO2 from volc.)
○ reduced temp. gradient from equator to poles
○ oceanic anoxia
§ ie. Cretaceous mass extinction betw. Mesozoic & Cenozoic eras
○ presence of iridium in sedimentary rocks (meteorite impact)
○ dust clouds from impact blocked sunlight & disturbed global climate
- scientists & data suggest that a 6th human-caused mass extinction likely to occur unless dramatic action taken (temp dec. = ext. rate inc.)
§ CONSEQUENCES of mass extinctions:
○ alters ecological communities & niches avail.
○ takes mill of years for diversity to recover
○ increase of predators vs prey (marine)
○ paves the way for adaptive radiations
Adaptive Radiation
- occurs when organisms colonize new env. w/ little competition
- rapid diversification of spp. from one common ancestor in new env.
- promoted by a new ecological opportunity for new adaptive zone
§ CONSEQUENCES of adaptive radiations:
1. Species Diversification: Rapid, varied descendants.
2. Ecological Opportunity: New niches exploited.
3. Speciation: Reproductive isolation forms.
4. Trait Evolution: Unique adaptations emerge.
5. Competition, Coexistence: Interactions, resource partitioning.

Changes in Rate & Timing

- Heterochrony: an evolutionary change in RATE or TIMING of DEVELOPMENTAL GENES
○ impact body shape
○ shapes of human/chimpanzee head caused by small changes in relative growth rates (more similar as infants/fetus)
○ alter timing of reproductive development relative to non-rep. organs
§ paedomorphosis: rate of rep. development speedier than somatic devel.
□ juvenile structures but sexually mature
Changes in Spatial Pattern
- genes controlling placement/organization of body parts also cause evolutionary change (homeotic genes control basic features’
placements)
○ Hox genes: class of homeotic genes provifing POSITIONAL info. IF EXPRESSED IN WRONG LOCATION, can be
PRODUCED in wrong location
Changes in Genes
- Gene duplications —> production of new dev. genes —> new morphological forms (Ubx gene, Hox can turn off leg dev.)
Changes in Gene Regulation
- changes in regulation of dev. genes cause changes in morphology rather than changes in the sequence of dev. genes (MAKES
SENSE as 98% of DNA are introns)

- evolution: new forms arise by slight modification of existing forms

- from simple structures to complex
- Exaptations: structures that evolve in one context but become appointed for diff. function
Evolutionary Trends

Phlyogeny: evolutionary history of spp. or group of related spp.

Systematics classifies org. & determines their evolutionary relationships using fossil, molecular/genetic data
Taxonomy: ordered DIVISION and NAMING of organisms
Binomial Nomenclature
- Two part names for species and hierarchical classification (Linnaeus)
○ 1st part | genus:
§ first letter capitalized
○ 2nd part | specific epithet (species):
§ entire species name underlined
○ ie. Panthera or Panthera (on paper)
Hierarchical Classification
- taxonomic groups (broad to narrow): domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

Classification & Phylogeny

- evolutionary relationships seen in phylogenetic trees (formed by common ancestor, PhyloCode)

- org. w/ sim. morphologies or DNA sequences more closely related than org. w/ diff morph./seq.
- sim. result of homology or analogy
○ HOMOLOGY is similarity due to SHARED ANCESTRY - THE STRUCTURE USED FOR CREATING PHY. TREES
○ ANALOGY is similaruty due to CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
§ CONVERGENT EVOLUTION: similar pressures/n.s. produce similar analogous adaptations in org. from DIFFERENT
EVOLUTIONARY LINEAGES
- molecular systematics use DNA/other molecular data to determine evolutionary relationships (think base sequences)

- CLADISTICS groups org. by common descent

- CLADE group of spp. including an ANCESTRAL SPP. and all its descendants
○ valid clade: monophyletic: contains the ancestor and all descendants
○ unvalid: paraphyletic group: contains ancestor but not not descendants
○ unvalid: polyphyletic group: various spp. lacking common ancestry

- there are shared ancestral characters (originated from ancestor) vs shared derived character (unique to a
particular clade)
○ to differentiate betw. these: ingroups (various spp. being studied) compared to outgroups (spp./grp. closely
related to ingroup)
Maximum Parsimony and Maxiumum Likelihood
principles applied to find best phy. tree with large data set
M.P.: minimizes evolutionary events
M.L.: tree reflecting most likely sequence of evolutionary events

phylogenetic bracketing allows prediction of features of an ANCESTOR (ie. dino’s) from features of descendants (ie.
birds, crocodiles)

- gene duplication increases genes in genome thus more space for evolutionary changes (which can be traced)
- orthologous genes: found in a SINGLE copy in genome & homologous betw. spp. | diverge only after speciation
- paralogous genes: bc of gene duplication, found in MORE THAN ONE copy in genome | can diverge within clade & evolve new functions

Molecular Clocks
molecular clock: using the genes evolving at a constant rate, estimations when evolutionary changes occurred can be made
Orthologous Genes:
○ Changes in genes between species show how long ago they shared a common ancestor.
Paralogous Genes:
○ Changes in duplicated genes within a species indicate when the duplication event happened.
Calibration with Fossils:
○ Molecular clocks are calibrated using fossil-recorded dates for accurate time estimates.
Neutral Theory
“evolutnry change in genes/proteins has no effect on fitness NOT INFLUENCED BY DARWINIAN SELECTION”
change regular like a clock
- Phylogenetic analysis indicates that HIV comes from viruses that infect chimpanzees and other primates.
○ By sneatudying different HIV samples over time, scientists found that the virus changed in a predictable manner
(linear), almost like a clock ticking.
○ Using a molecular clock, researchers estimate that one strain of HIV started infecting humans around the 1930s.

- through molecular systematics

- first spp. classified by ‘plant’ or ‘animal’
then, 5 kingdoms recognized: Monera (prokaryotes), Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia
now, three-domain system says: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya

A Simple Tree of All Life

- Eukaryotes and archaea closer to e/o than bacteria
- rRNA genes help form tree of life
○ much interchanges of genes between organisms in DIFFERENT domains
○ horizontal gene transfer: the movement of genes from one genome to another
§ makes tree of life complicated to make
- if eukaryotes arose via endosymbiosis betw. bact. and arch., evolutionary relationships better depicted as a
ring of life than a tree of life

- tree of life example diagrams??????????????