Lakshya NEET 3.

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EVOLUTION
1 EVOLUTION
• Evolutionary biology is the study of history of life forms on Earth.
• Stellar distances are measured in light years. 2 ORIGIN OF LIFE
• Big bang explosion (Singular huge explosion).
Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth, i.e, almost
Resulted in
4 billion years ago.
leading to
Parameters Origin of Universe Origin of Earth
Time scale • 20 billion years ago • 4.5 billion years ago Probably originated 3 billion years ago
Feature • Comprises cluster of galaxies • Occurred in solar
(stars clouds of gas, dust) system of Milkyway First non-cellular Would have possibly originated from giant
galaxy forms of life molecules (RNA, protein, polysaccharide, etc.)
These capsules reproduced their molecules perhaps.
Events after expansion of universe :
• Temperature declined Probably originated 2 billion years ago
• H2 + He formed First cellular forms of life
• Gases condensed Arose in water environment (aquatic)
• Galaxies of present day formed
This version of Biogenesis i.e., the first form of life arose slowly through
Hypothesis for Origin of life on early earth : evolutionary forces from non-living molecules is accepted by majority.

• No atmosphere existed on early earth.

• Water vapours, methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia
release from molten mass covered the surface.
U.V rays NH3
H 2O  → H 2 + O2 
 + O 2 → CO 2 + H 2 O + other contents
CH 4 

• H2O vapour falls as rain to fill all the depression and form oceans.
• Ozone layer was formed

3 THEORIES FOR ORIGIN OF LIFE

• The origin of life is considered a unique event in the history of universe

Theory Proponents Connotations

Special Conventional religious • All living organisms that we see today were
creation literature created as such.
• Diversity was always the same since creation and
will be the same in future also.
• Earth is 4000 years old.

• Life came from outerspace.

Cosmozoic Early Greek thinkers • Units of life called spores were transferred to
/Panspermia Astronomers
different planets including Earth.

spontaneous • Life came out from decaying and rotting matter like straw, mud. etc.
generation • Disapproved by Louis Pasteur

• Life comes only from pre-existing life

Theory of
• He showed that in pre-sterlised flasks, life did not come from
Biogenesis
“killed yeast”.

• Formation of life was preceded by chemical evolution i.e.,

formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic
constituents
• First form of life could have come from pre-existing
non-living organic molecules (e.g. RNA, proteins, etc.)

• This hypothesis was proved by Miller’s experiment,

1953, S.L. Miller (American scientist)
• In similar experiments others observed, formation
of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigments and fats.
• Analysis of meteorite content also revealed
similar compounds indicating that similar
processes are occuring elsewhere in space
 4 EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

1. Palaeontological evidences (Evidences from fossils) 2. Embryological evidences

• Fossils are remains of hard parts of life forms found in rocks. • Proposed by Ernst Heckel
• Age of fossils is determined by radioactive dating method. • Based upon the observations of certain features during embryonic
stage common to all vertebrates that are absent in adults e.g.,
• Fossils of different life forms in different sedimentary layers indicates
embryos of all vertebrates develop a row of vestigial gill slits
the geological period in which they existed (epochs, periods, eras)
functional only fish and not found in another adult vertebrates.
• Rocks form sediments and a cross-section of Earth's crust indicates • It was disproved by Karl Ernst von Baer. He noted that embryos
the arrangement of sediments one over the other during the long never pass through the adult stages of other animals.
history of earth.
• Molecular homology
• Different-aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life-forms Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function among
who probably died during the formation of the particular sediment. Some diverse organisms indicates common ancestry. These biochemical
of them appear similar to modern organisms. They represent extinct similarities point to the same shared ancestry as structural similarities
organisms (e.g., Dinosaurs). among diverse organisms.

3. Morphological and anatomical evidences

Parameters Homologous organs Analogous organs

Common
ancestory

• Not similar but resulted in selection of similar adaptive

Anatomical Similar but developed along different directions
features in different groups of organisms, thus, evolving
structures due to adaptations to different needs.
for the same function.

Function
Different Similar
performed

Type of evolution Divergent Convergent

Examples

fore limbs of
vertebrates

• Wings of butterfly and birds

• Eyes of octopus and mammals
• Flippers of Penguins and Dolphins
• Sweet potato (root modification)
and potato (stem modification

Vertebrate hearts, Vertebrate brains

 5 ADAPTIVE RADIATION

The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point
and literally radiating to other areas of geography (habitats)

Examples

Darwin’s finches r tas

ma
ga n
• Small black birds su der wa ian
g l i lf
• Evolved fromseed eating

mo pial
birds inGalapagos lsland

tiger
le
rsu

cat
• Altered beaks arose, enabling them to become insectivorous

ma
and vegetarian finches. marsupial
radiation

an nded
la

ba
tea
koa

ter
rat
at mar
mb sup
wo ial

Fig.: Variety of beaks of finches that Darwin found in Galapagos lsland

Fig.: Adaptive radiation of marsupials of Australia

When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an isolated geographical area
(representing different habitats), one can call this convergent evolution.

Examples

Placental mammals Australian marsupials

Mole Marsupial mole

Anteater Numbat (banded anteater)

Mouse Marsupial mouse

Lemur Spotted cuscus

Flying squirrel Flying phalanger (Sugar glider)

Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat

Wolf Tasmanian wolf

6 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

• Metabolic capabilities of different cellular forms of

life under the influence of natural selection
contributed to biological evolution.

• Rate of appearance of new forms is linked to the life

cycle or the life span. e.g., Microbes have the ability to
multiply and become millions within hours whereas fish
or fowl would take millions of years as life span of these
animals are in years.
 Darwin's theory of natural selection
Theories For The Evolution Of Life Forms • Darwin visited Galapagos island, Influence of the work of Thomas Malthus
Lamarck’s theory of evolution Ship - H.M.S Beagle on Darwinism:
• Given by French naturalist Lamarch • Observations by Charles Darwin: (i) Population can grow exponentially

(i) Existing living forms share similarities to varying (ii) Limited resources
Use and disuse of organs degrees not only among themselves but also with
(iii) Nature keeps control/check on population
life forms that existed millions of years ago.
Main postulates : size which are, hence, nearly stable
Inheritance of acquired (ii) The geological history of earth correlates
charcters with the biological history of earth.

• Those characteristics which enable some to survive better in natural conditions (climate,food, physical factors etc.)
would outbreed others that are less-endowed to survive under such natural conditions.
Darwin's postulates:
• The fitness, according to Darwin, refers ultimately and only to reproductive fitness.
• According to Darwin, variations are small and
directional and evolution for Darwin was
• Adaptive ability is inherited and has a genetic basis
gradual process.
• Darwin asserted that in a population exist • Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature.
variations, which are heritable and which make
resource utilisation better for few will enable only • Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts of Darwinian theory of evolution.
those to reproduce and leave more progeny.
• Habitat fragmentation and genetic drift may accentuate variations leading to speciation.

Weaknesses of Darwinism :
(i) Unable to explain the origin of variations
(ii) Could not explain speciation
(iii) Ignored work done by Mendel.

Mutation theory
• Given by Hugo de Vries in first decade
of 20th century
• Worked on evening primrose
• New species originate as a result of
mutations which are single step (saltation)
large, random and directionless variations
arising suddenly in a population

1 2
• Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago • Evolution is not a directed process in the sense of determinism.
had also come to similar conclusions as Charles Darwin It is a stochastic process based on chance events in nature
around the same time and chance mutations in the organisms

3 4
• When we describe story of this world we describe evolution
• Artificial selection : By intensive breeding programme, man
as a process. When we describe the story of life on earth, we
has created breeds that differ from other
treat evolution as a consequence of a process called natural
breeds (e.g., dogs)
selection.
 7 EXAMPLES OF EVOLUTION BY ANTHROPOGENIC ACTION

The case of Industrial

melanism :
Antibiotic Herbicides Pesticides

4
Classical example of natural
resistant resistant resistant selection among variants in
microbes varieties varieties moth population observed
in England.

Parameters Before industrialisation (1850s) After industrialisation (1920s)

Figure

Tree trunks White, covered by lichens Became dark due to deposition of soot and smoke

White moths More Less

Melanised moths Less More

Predators feed on Melanised moths White winged moths

• Moths that were able to camouflage

• Lichens do not grow in • Agent of natural themselves (i.e., hide in the
polluted area selection : Predator/ birds background) survived but no variant
(pollution indicator) is completely wiped out

8 A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION

Land reptiles were dinosaurs which

Form Of Life Appeared Around disappeared 65 mya
Climatic change
1st non cellular form 3 bya Probable reason
Evolved in birds

1 cellular form
st 2000 mya Some land reptiles went back water
invertebrates 350 mya to evolve fish like reptiles eg. Ichthyosaurus (200mya)
Modern day descendants of reptiles e.g., Turtles, Tortoised, Crocodiles.
sea weeds and few plants 320 mya

Possibly Possibly
• Lobed fin fish Amphibians Reptiles Mammals (Arose from
evolved evolved
(Coelocanth) into • Lay thick shelled ancestral extinct reptiles)
into
• Primarily Frog eggs which do not • Viviparous i.e., protect young
aquatic salamanders dry up in sun ones inside mothers body
• Aquatic and • More intelligent in sensing
• 1938, fish caught in
land and avoiding danger.
South Africa was earlier
thought to be extinct

• A Likely Reason for Restricted Distribution of Pouched Mammals in Australia

• Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were overridden by North American fauna. Due to the same
continental drift pouched mammals of Australia survived because of lack of competition from any other mammal.
• The First Mammal were Like Shrews.
• whales, dolphins seals and sea cows are aquatic mammals.
 9 HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

• Allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation to generation. This is • The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant.
called genetic equilibrium.

• Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1 and is represented as : • When frequency measured, differs from expected values, the difference
p + q = 1 [p = Frequency of recessive allele (a); q = Frequency of dominant allele (A)] indicates the extent of evolutionary change or disturbance in genetic equilibrium.
p2 + q2 + 2pq = 1 [p2 = Frequency of
homozygous dominant (AA);q2 = Frequency of homozygous recessive (aa); 2pq = Frequency
of heterozygotes (Aa)]

• Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:

2. Genetic recombination: Variations due to recombination during gametogenesis
1.Gene migration : When migration of a section of population to another place or population
occurs, gene frequencies change in the original as well as in the new population. 3. Mutation: Microbial experiments show that pre-existing advantageous mutations when
selected will result in observation of new phenotypes. Over few generations, this would
result in speciation.

• When gene migration occurs multiple 4. Genetic drift: Change in gene frequencies in a small population by chance.
times, it is called gene flow. Sometimes the change in allele frequency is so different in the new sample of
population that they become a different species. The original drifted population
becomes founders and effect is called founders effect.
• Emigration (–) • Immigration (+)
5. Natural selection : A process is which heritable variations enabling better survival are
• Some genes/alleles lost • New genes/alleles added enabled to reproduce and leave greater number of progeny.

Types

Stabilising selection Directional selection Disruptive selection

• More individuals acquire • More individuals acquire value • More individuals acquire peripheral
mean character value other than the mean character value character value to both ends at the
distribution curve

10 A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION

OF PLANTS

Different types of plants evolved in

different periods of time:
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Coenozoic

Chlorophyte ancestors: Bryophytes :

Tracheophyte ancestors : Lycopods

Psilophytons were common ancestors for

Derivatives Progymnosperms, Ferns, Ginkgos, Conifers,
Gnetales, Sphenopsids

Origin of monocotyledons is more

recent than that of dioctyledons

Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present

(200 mya) but they all fell to form
coal deposits slowly.
 11 A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
HISTORY OF VERTEBRATES

Derivatives
• Turtles, Lizards, Snakes and Tuatara arose from common ancestor sauropsids
• Thecodont ancestors gave way to existing crocodiles and birds and extinct
dinosaurs.
• Story of origin of mammals:
Extinct reptiles Synapsids Pelycosaurs Therapsids Mammals

12 A FAMILY TREE OF DINOSAURS

• Triceratops – three horned dinosaur with bony frill around back of its head.
Stegosaurus - Large triangular Tyrannosaurus rex - 20 feet in Brachiosaurus - Long giraffe like
bony plates along the back and height, had huge fearsome neck, long forelimbs
spiked tail dagger-like teeth

• Pteranodon were possibly flying reptiles

• Archaeoptervx is a transitional fossil between non avian dinosaurs and birds
• Brachiosaurus and Tyrannosaurus arose separately, mostly likely, from a
common ancestor.
 13 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

• Among the stories of evolution of individual species, the story of evolution of modern man is most interesting and
appears to parallel evolution of human brain and language.

Human ancestors Years back Cranial capacity Specific features

Dryopithecus more ape-like  Hairy and walked like

15 mya - more man-like Gorillas and Chimpanzees
Ramapithecus

• Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in Ethiopia

and Tanzania.

• 3-4 mya, man-like primates walked in East African grasslands.

Australopithecus 2 mya -
• They were probably not taller than 4 feet but walked upright.

• Evidence shows they hunted with stone weapons but

essentially ate fruit.

• First human-like being, the hominid

Homo habilis - 650 cc – 800 cc
• Probably did not eat meat

• Fossils discovered in Java in 1891

Homo erectus 900 cc
1.5 mya • Probably ate meat

1,00,000-40,000 • Lived in near East and Central Asia

Neanderthal man years back 1400 cc
• Used hides to protect their body and buried their dead

75,000-10,000 • Arose in Africa and moved across continents and developed

Homo sapiens
years ago (ice age) -
into distinct races

• The skull of baby chimpanzee is more like adult human

skull than adult chimpanzee skull

• Pre historic cave art-18,000 years ago. One such cave paintings
by pre-historic humans can be seen
at Bhimbetka rock shelter in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.

• Agriculture came around 10,000 years back and human

settlements started.