12th hacker series

Evolution
Evolution
• evolution is the changes in the flora and fauna that took place
gradually over millions of years due to cumulative changes in
organisms

Stellar distance
• distancebetween
Distance betweenearth
planets are
and a called
star stellar
is called distance
stellar distance.
• These distances can be measured in ‘light years’
• One light year is the distance travelled by light in one year in vacuum
• When we look at stars , in a way we are peeping into the past

Origin of universe
• 20 billion years ago
• Big Bang theory explains this
Events after expansion of universe
• temperature declined
• H2 +He formed
• Gases condensed
• Galaxies of present day formed

Origin of earth
4.5 billion years ago
 Primitive earth
• no atmosphere
• Reducing ( initially)
• High temperature
• no ozone. - UV rays could enter easily.

Theory of origin of life

Theory is given by various scientist on how life originated
Theory of special creation
• given by father Suarez
• Life was created by some supernatural power: God
• life was created as such in six days
• Diversity was created as such and will remain like this
• Earth is 4000 year old
 Theory of catastrophism
• catastrophic events (calamities) , wipes of the existing life and new life
comes
Extraterrestrial theory- theory of panspermia/ cosmozoic theory
• life came from outer space in the form of seed/spore etc

Theory of abiogenesis/ theory spontaneous generation

• life comes from nonliving things like mud, straw, Grain, etc

Theory of biogenesis
• life comes from pre-existing life
• Pasteur’s experiment to prove biogenesis that rejected theory of
abiogenesis
• he took pre-sterilised flask
Theory of chemical evolution
• most widely accepted theory of origin of life
• this theory was proposed by oparin and haldane
• They said primitive atmosphere on earth, supported origin of life like:
• 1) reducing atmosphere
• 2) lightning
• 3) high temperature- sun uv rays, volcanic eruption

Eventually, later ozone was also formed, temperature, reduced and water
vapour eventually condensed, and ultimately fell on earth, depression as
rain ( rainfall occurred for million years)
 ~

Forms the ocean, which we see today

~
Water was hot with various chemicals
↓
First life probably came
d
Life probably came 500 million years after formation of earth I.e, approx 4
bya
 Miller and Urey experiment
• in 1953
• Performed, experiment to prove theory of chemical evolution
• he took ammonia, CH4, H2 along with water vapour at 75k voltage
800°C temperature in spark discharge Chamber
• After 18 days of experiment, they collected the water and found simple
amino acids like glycine, aspartic acid and alanine
• Tube of Spark discharge chamber( hot with gases). & Passed through.
(condenser.). & Cooling. & Water trap.

• chemical evolution: nonliving organic molecules- 1st life came

• First non-cellular form of life- 3 bya
• First cellular form of life- 2 bya
• First life in water
 Theories for evolution: biological/ organic evolution
How do variations occur occurred in species?
Lamarckism/ theory of use or disuse of organ/theory of inheritance of
acquired character
• proposed by a French naturalist Lamarck
• According to this theory:
• 1) all organisms have internal vital force that enable them to develop a
new organ or modify the existing organ
• 2) change in environment, force the organism to develop a new organ or
modify the existing
• 3) the more we use an organ, the more it develops, the less we use an
organ, it disappears( use, and disuse)
• Note: vestigial organ like wisdom tooth, appendix may have a little
support to this. If eye use more does not grow.
• The character acquired during the lifetime is also passed under the next
generation

LamarCk gave example of giraffe to support his theory

• he says- giraffe, developed longer neck over time due to foraging
leaves on tall trees when grass was not available
• Note: Weismann theory of germplasm disproved the theory of
inheritance of acquired character, he cut the tail of mice for 22
generation, still it appeared
• Two types of cells:
• 1) somatic
• 2) germ cell- any change in germplasm pass to next generation
 Darwinism/ theory of natural selection
• Darwin, born in England, went on a voyage on HMS (her Majesty
ship) beagle to Galapagos Island located in Pacific Ocean
• At the same time, Alfred Russel Wallace, travelled to Malay
Archipelago located in the Indian Ocean
• Both came up with similar conclusion for evolution of species
• Darwin published a book ‘ origin of species’ mentioning theory of
natural selection
Darwin was greatly influenced by ‘ population theory’ by Thomas
• population has a tendency to grow exponentially, but population size is
stable, more or less, except seasonal fluctuation
• Points of Darwin’s theory
• 1) over production or differential reproductive- there is tendency for
organisms to overproduce ( eg- dogs- 5/6 puppies, and different
organisms reproduce at different rate)
• 2) population is stable
• 3) resources are limited- competition and struggle for existence
~ d ↓

Outrasperife
specifie ③ environmental
cold rain hot
members blw the members of
btw
,
the ,

same
species
different species Emp ,
ete

of

• 4) variations- no two individuals in a species are same, variations

exists, useful variations, which, according to Darwin is adaptation, is
advantageous and enable the organism to survive
• Variation small, directional and accumulate over time generation after
generation. Eg- polar bear in cold climate., Camel in desert
• 5) nature select individuals with advantageous variation- which now
reproduces more, leaves more progeny and other eliminate(reproductive
fitness)

Survival of fittest, term by Herbert Spencer

• natural selection(tells about mechanism of evolution)
• Branching descent ( pattern of evolution)- it shows how all species are
related to common ancestry

Mutation theory
• by Hugo devries
• he worked on evening, Primrose ( Oenothera lamarckiana)
• Single step, large mutation- saltation
↓
Mutation are responsible for evolution
 ↓
Large, random and directionless occur by chance

↓
Unpredictable

Modern synthetic theory

• various factors together are responsible for evolution
• 1) natural selection
• 2) mutation
• 3) genetic recombination
• 4) genetic drift
• 5) gene migration

Example examples of natural selection

1) Darwin's finches
2) industrial melanism
3) antibiotic resistant microbe/ bacteria
4) pesticide resistant bacteria
Industrial melanism
• before industrialisation(1850) in England
• White winged moth ( biston betularia) were increasing in numbers,
than dark winged moth ( biston carbonaria) . No pollution, (no
industries.)

Lichens covered bark of tree

~

Here, white winged moth could easily camouflage in light background

due to lichens whereas, dark winged due to its contrasting colour
could easily predated by bird
• after industrial(1920)

V
Lichens disappeared
~
Bark turned darker due to pollution

~
White winged moth easily predicted in dark background,
whereas dark winged moth survived
Pesticide resistant mosquito

Microbial experiment
 Note:
• rate of appearance of new life forms is directly linked to the lifespan/
life cycle of organism
• Microbe divided very fast, hence the results are obtained within few
hours ( result- new species)
• For the same to occur in a fish etc, it will take million of years as their
lifespan is in years

Types of natural selection

1) stabilising selection/ normal selection
2) directional selection/ progressive selection
3) disruptive selection

Stabilising Directional Disruptive

In this, nature Here, extreme / Here, extreme/
selects the average peripheral/ values are peripheral/ values are
mean value selected not selected not
character or intermediate but one at intermediate but more
Intermediate phenotype a time then 1 at a time
 Evidence of evolution
• morphological, and anatomical evidences
• Paleontological evidence
• Embryological evidences
• biochemical evidences
• Artificial selection

Morphological and anatomical evidences

Homology/ homologous structure Analogous structure
• structures with similar basic • structures having different
plan or common origin, but origin or anatomy, but
perform different function performing similar function
• Homology is a result of • Analogy is a result of
divergent evolution convergent evolution
• Even after having common • Even after having different
origin due to different origin in the structure, evolve
geographical areas and functionally same, due to
different adaptation due to similar environment and
different needs, they Are similar needs
functionally diverged • Example of analogue structure
• All have similar bones radius, • 1) wings of bird and butterfly
ulna, humerus, carpals, • 2) eyes of octopus and eyes of
metacarpals, but still perform mammals
different function. • 3) sweet potato, and potato
• Examples of homo of a • 4) flippers of penguin and
structure dolphin
• 1) thorns of Bougainvillea and
tendrils of Cucurbita(both have
modified auxiliary bud).
• 2) Vertebrates heart is 2/3/4
chambered
• 3) Vertebrates brain-forebrain,
mid brain, hindbrain
 Biochemical evidences
• similarities in protein and genes performing a given function among
diverse organisms, give clues to common ancestry
• Example- sequence similarities in DNA between chimpanzee and human
• Similar enzyme trypsin found in vertebrate and invertebrate

Embryological evidences
• Ernst Haeckel gave - biogenetic law/ recapitulation theory
• According to this ‘ ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny’
• Certain features during embryonic stage, common to all vertebrates that
are absent in adult
• For example, the embryos of all vertebrates, including human develop a
row of vestigial Gill slits just behind the head, but it is a functional
organ only in fish and not found in any other adult vertebrates.
• Karl von Baer disproved recapitulation theory, and said embryos, never
passed through adult stage of other organism(ancestor)
 Paleontological evidences
• fossils- are the complete organism or its part or footprint or excreta
preserved over million years( extinct)
• Paleontoology- study of fossil
• Rocks and sediments - The cross-section of earth’s crust indicates the
arrangement of sediments one over the other during the long history of
earth
• Different age rocks, sediments contain fossils of different life forms
who died during the formation of the particular sediment
• They represent extinct organisms(eg- dinosaur)
• a study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicates the
geological period in which they existed
• Age of the fossil can be determined by:
• 1) relative dating- comparing the sediments
• 2) radioactive dating- carbon dating, etc
 Artificial selection
• as an evidence of evolution
• a process where humans choose organisms with desirable traits and
breed them to create new organisms with those traits
• Eg- in agriculture, horticulture, etc
 Hardy Weinberg principle
• allele- alternate form of gene
• gene pool - sum total of gene in a population
• HW principle - in a large randomly mating population , allelic
frequency remain constant generation after generation if the
population is free from evolutionary forces
• Factors affecting:
• 1) gene migration
• 2) genetic recombination
• 3) gene mutation
• 4) genetic drift
• 5) natural selection
Factors affecting HW equilibrium
1) Gene migration- if multiple migration occurs in a population

2) genetic recombination- during crossing over, in gamete formation

3) mutation- lederberg replica plate experiment

• pre-existing advantageous mutation when selected will form a result
in New phenotype
• Over generation- new species formed

4) natural selection
5) genetic drift- in a small population, random change of allele maybe due
natural calamity, anthropogenic action(human action), geographical
isolation(separate area)
• two types of genetic drift.> Founder’s effect.
-

&
Bottleneck effect

Founder’s effect
• eg- Darwin's finches
• There is an original population of seed, eating bird living in
mainland(South America) , some of these moved to Galapagos Island,
these are called founders population
• as per their feeding habits, their beak modified with time, some became
insect, some cactus eating, nectar eating, fruit eating, etc
 Bottleneck effect
• initial population was filling the complete, but due to hunting, only a
few left , size of the neck
 Adaptive radiation
• the evolution of different species, starting from a common geographical
point radiating along various direction
• Eg- Darwin's finches. Their beak modified, depending upon the food,
they explored
• Adaptive radiation indicates divergent evolution
• Other example-placental mammals, Australian marsupial
Geological time scale
 • universe- 20 bya
• Earth- 4.5 bya
• Invertebrates- 500 mya
• Jawless fish- 350 mya
• seaweed, and early land plants- 320 mya

• we are told that the first organism that invaded land were plants
• Fish with stout and strong fins
• Could move our land and go back to water- 350 mya

• in 1938, a fish caught off in South Africa happened to be a coelacanth

which was thought to be extinct. These animals called lobe fins
evolved into the first amphibians that lived on both land and water

• the amphibians evolved into reptile

• in the next 200 million years or so, reptiles of different shapes and
sizes dominated on earth
• Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fishes
like reptiles- 200 mya ( Ichthyosaurs)
• The land reptile were, of course the dinosaurs. The biggest of them I.e,
Tyrannosaurus Rex was about 20 feet in height and had a huge
fearsome dagger like teeth
• Dinosaur suddenly disappeared from the Earth- 65mya
• The first mammals were like shrews. Their fossils are small sized.
when reptiles Declined, Mammals took over this earth.
• note: initially, there was a common land ( Pangea)
V

Continental drift

Land separated

v
Due to this, South America joined North America. Earlier there were
mammals like hippopotamus, horse, rabbit, etc in South America, but later
when it joined North America, North America fauna dominated
• in Australia, pouched mammal survived due to no other mammal
dominated
 Human evolution
• mammals. & Primate. S
Monkey
3 Apes- chimpanzees, gorillas
S Human

note- when we look at this Skull of human and baby and adult
chimpanzee, baby chimpanzee looks similar to adult human skull,
than adult chimpanzee skull, showing common ancestry