EVOLUTION

Evolutionary biology is the study of history of life forms on earth. The evolution
of life on earth, different changes in flora and fauna around earth that co-exist
along with human beings also forms parts of evolution.

Origin of Life

The origin of life is considered unique events in the history of universe. Huge
cluster of galaxies comprises the universe. Galaxies contain stars and clouds
of dust and smoke.

Big Bang Theory attempts to explain the origin of universe. According to this
theory, a huge explosion occurs that forms the different galaxies.

In solar system of Milky Way galaxies, earth has been supposed to be formed
about 4.5 billion years ago. There was no atmosphere in early earth. Water
vapour, methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia released from molten mass
covered the earth surface.

UV rays from sun splits the water into hydrogen and oxygen. Life appeared
500 million years after the formation of earth.

There are different theories regarding the origin of life on earth-

• Some scientist believes that life comes from other planets. Early Greek
thinker thoughts that unit of life is called spores transferred from other
planets.
• According to other theory, life comes out of dead and decaying matters
like straw and mud. This theory is called theory of spontaneous origin.
• Louis Pasture experimentally proved that life arises only from pre-
existing life. Spontaneous theory of origin of life is dismissed after that.
• Oparin and Haldane proposed that the first form of life could have come
from pre-existing non-living organic molecules like RNA and protein etc.
The formation of life preceded by chemical evolution. At that time
condition on earth were- high temperature, volcanic eruption, reducing
atmosphere containing CH4and NH3.
Miller experiment of Origin of Life- S.L. Miller in 1953, conducted an
experiment to show the origin of life on earth in the physical environment
similar to condition prevails at that time.

Miller created similar condition of temperature and pressure in laboratory

scale. He created electric discharge in a flask containing CH4, H2 and NH3
and water vapour at 8000C.

He observed formation of amino acids in flask after 15 days of electric

discharge. Similar experiment by other scientist found formation of sugars,
nitrogen bases, pigments and fats.

Analysis of meteorite content also reveals similar compounds that reveal that
similar process are occurring elsewhere in the space. This experimental
evidence about the origin of life is called chemical evolution of life.

Experimental representation of Miller’s experiment

The first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion years back.
They could have been giant molecules like RNA, Protein, and Polysaccharide
etc.

The cellular form of life was probably single cell and originates in water
medium. The theory that first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary
forces from non-living molecules is called biogenesis.

Evidence of Evolution: Evidence that evolution of life forms has taken place
on earth have many proofs as mentioned below-
1. Paleontological evidence- different aged rock sediments contain fossils of
different life forms that probably died during the formation of particular
sediment. Fossils are remains of hard parts of life-forms found in rocks .The
study showed that different form varied over time and certain life forms are
restricted geological time span. Hence, new forms of life have arisen at
different times in history of earth.

2. Homologous organs- those organs that perform different function but have
similar origin and structure are called homologous organs. For example
human, cheetah, bat and whales share similarities in pattern of bones of
forelimbs although these forelimbs perform different functions in these
animals. In these animal similar structure developed along different directions
due to adaptation of different needs. This is called divergent evolution.

Homologous structures Analogous structures

Similar in anatomy Dissimilar in anatomy
Doing dissimilar functions Doing similar functions
Develop in related animals Develop in unrelated animals
Inherited from a common ancestor Not inherited from common ancestor
Similar developmental pattern Developmental pattern is not similar
Similar structure and Origin Dissimilar in structure and origin

3. Analogous structures-they are not anatomically similar organs but perform

similar function. For example eyes of mammals and octopus or flippers of
penguin and dolphins. This is due to similar habitat that resulted in similar
adaptive features in different groups of organisms. This that of evolution is
called convergent evolution.

4. Biochemical evidences - similarities in proteins and genes performing a

given function among diverse organisms give hints to common ancestry.
These biochemical similarities point to the same shared ancestry as structural
similarities among diverse organisms.

DIVERGENT EVOLUTION CONVERGENT EVOLUTION

1. Development of different functional Development of similar adaptive functional

structures from a common ancestral form structures in unrelated groups of organisms is
is called divergent evolution. called convergent evolution.

2. Homologous organs show divergent Analogous organs show convergent

evolution. evolution.
 examples. Australian Marsupials and
Examples.: Darwin's Finches, Australian
Placental mammals, various equatic
Marsupials, locomotion in mammals.
vertebrate and wings of insect bird and bat.

Evolution by natural selection- Industrial melanism

A case of natural selection was seen in England in 1850s, i.e., before
industrialisation in a peppered moth (Biston betularia). This moth had two
forms: grey colour and black colour (Carbonaria). In the early part of the
nineteenth century , before industrialization only the grey coloured forms of
moths were present; the dark forms were rare. The grey coloured moths were
seen on the tree trunks covered with lichens and so they were able to escape
from their enemies. Later on in 1920, due to the development of industries,
post industralization, the lichens were killed and the tree trunks looked dark
due to the deposition of industrial soot. Birds, now were able to spot these
moths and feed upon them. So the grey coloured moths were eaten by the
birds and the dark coloured moths escaped from the birds. Then now the coal
is replaced by the industries and oil and electricity is used. This has reduced
the soot production and ultimately less deposition of soot on the tree trunks.
These tree trunks have, now, again become grey in colour. Consequently,
grey coloured moths have again increased in number. This example clearly
brings out the action of natural selection.

Evolution by anthropogenic action - Resistance of mosquitoes to

pesticides.

When DDT was introduced to control mosquitoes it was tremendously

successful. Most of the mosquitoes were sensitive to DDT and were therefore
killed. In that population of mosquitoes, few mosquitoes became resistant to
DDT and survived. They multiplied and now almost total population of
mosquitoes became resistant to DDT.

Same pattern has been observed in bacteria which are multidrug resistant due
to excess use of drugs and medicines.

Adaptive Radiation- the process of evolution of different species in given

geographical area starting from a point and radiating to other areas of
geography (habitat) is called adaptive radiation. Darwin’s finches represent
one of the best examples of adaptive radiation. Australian marsupials, each
with different from other evolved from one ancestral stock, but all within
Australian island continents.
When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an
isolated geographical area (representing different habitats), we can call this
convergent evolution e.g Placental mammals and Australian marsupials.

Biological Evolution – the nature select for fittest and fitness is based on
characteristics which are inherited. Some organisms are better adopted to
survive in otherwise hostile environment. Fitness is the end result of the ability
to adopt and get selected by nature.

Lamarck had said that evolution of life form had occurred but driven by use
and disuse of organs. He gave the example of giraffe to evolve their neck by
foraging leaves on tall trees and had to adapt by elongation of their necks.

Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts of
Darwinian Theory of Evolution .Darwin theory of natural selection was based
on certain observations like-

• Limited natural resources.

• Over population
• Competition for resources
• Struggle for existence
• Survival of the fittest.

Mechanism of Evolution

Hugo deVries based on his work on evening primrose brought forth the idea of
mutation. Mutation is the large difference arising suddenly in a population.

Mutations are random and directionless while Darwin variations are small and
directional. Hugo deVries believed that mutation causes speciation and hence
called saltation (single step large mutation).

Difference Amongst Lamarckism, Darwinism and Mutation Theory

Properties Lamarckism Darwinism Mutation Theory
The theory believes
that every organism
Darwinism does not
has an internal vital No internal vital force
Vital force believe in internal vital
force that tends to is involved.
force.
increase its size upto a
certain limit.
 Animals with well
No conscious reaction
developed nervous Darwinism does not
Conscious is believed to take part
system react involve any conscious
Reaction in the process of
consciously to any reaction.
evolution.
change in environments
The theory considers
appetency or desires
on the part of animals It is not a constituent of Appetency in not
Appetency
an important force in the theory. involved.
the development of
modifications.
The organs put to more
use are believed to The theory is silent about
Use and The theory is silent
develop more while use and disuse of
Disuse about it.
organs not used begin organs.
to degenerate.
According to Darwin, all
The characters Only those variations
the living cells produce
acquired by an are transferred to the
Inheritance minute particles or
organism during its life offspring which
of Acquired pangenesis, which pass
are believed to get originate in germ cells
Characters into germ cells for
transferred the next or in the cells which
transmission to the
generation. form germ cells.
offspring.
Organisms produce
The theory does not
more offspring than the
clearly spell out The theory believes in
Struggle for available food and space
struggle for existence in the struggle for
Existence so that a struggle for
relation to high biotic existence.
existence ensues
potential.
amongst them.
Variations appear in
organisms in response
Variations appear due
Origin of to change in Variations appear
to change in genetic
Variations environment, conscious automatically.
make up.
reaction, desire r use
and disuse of organs.
The theory is silent
about them though it
It is based on the origin The theory is based on
Continuous believes in a
and selection of discontinuous
Variations continuous modification
continuous variations. variations or mutations.
of organs in a particular
direction.
The theory does not Mutations theory
Darwinism is based on
Natural take into account believes in natural
natural selection or
Selection natural selection or selection or survival of
survival of the fittest.
survival of the fittest. the fittest.
 Evolution is a Evolution is a jerky
continuous process Evolution is a continuous process, the direction
Progress of which moves in a process, the direction of of which is
Evolution direction governed by which is governed by unpredictable though
environment and nature. ultimately it is
appentency. governed by nature.

Hardy- Weinberg Principle- in a given population, frequency of occurrence of

alleles or genes can be finding out. These frequencies remains fixed and even
remain the same through generation. This fact was represented by Hardy-
Weinberg principles using algebraic equation.

This principle states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is
constant from generation to generation. The gene pool remains constant. This
is called genetic equilibrium and sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1.

Binomial expansion of (p+q)2 = p2+2pq+q2=1 where p and q represent the

frequency of allele A and allele a in a population . The frequency of AA
individuals in a population is simply p2 . This is simply stated in another ways,
i.e., the probability that an allele A with a frequency of p appear on both the
chromosomes of a diploid individual is simply the product of the probabilities,
i.e., p2 . Similarly of aa is q2 , of Aa 2pq. Hence, p2+2pq+q2=1.

When frequency is measured, the actual value varies that indicates the extent
of evolutionary changes. Change of frequency in a alleles (Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium) in a population resulted due to evolution.

The factors that affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are-

• Gene migration or gene flow.
• Genetic drift
• Mutation
• Genetic recombination
• Natural selection.

During genetic drift ,sometimes change in alleles frequency is so different in a

sample of population that they become a different species. The original drifted
population becomes founder and that effect is called founder effect.

Brief Account of evolution

About 2000 million ago first cellular form of life appeared on earth.
• Slowly single-celled organisms became multi-cellular forms and by the
time 500 mya, invertebrates were formed and active.
• Jawless fish evolved around 350 mya.
• Organisms started to invade from water to land. Fish with stout and
strong fins could move on land and go back to water These animals
called lobefins evolved into the first amphibians.
• Later, these amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay shelled eggs.
Then reptiles of different shapes and sizes dominated on earth , fish like
reptiles e.g. Ichthyosaurs and the land reptiles e.g dinosaurs. The
biggest of them was Tyrannosaurus rex.
• Some of the reptiles evolved into birds and later some of them to
mammals. Mammals were viviparous and more intelligent in sensing
and avoiding danger .