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DNA-RNA-Protein B v24 q9d

The document discusses the central dogma of molecular biology, which describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to proteins. It highlights the roles of DNA, RNA, and proteins in determining an organism's characteristics and the significance of the double helix structure of DNA. Additionally, it covers Chargaff's base-pairing rules that explain how nucleotides pair in the DNA structure.

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8 views54 pages

DNA-RNA-Protein B v24 q9d

The document discusses the central dogma of molecular biology, which describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to proteins. It highlights the roles of DNA, RNA, and proteins in determining an organism's characteristics and the significance of the double helix structure of DNA. Additionally, it covers Chargaff's base-pairing rules that explain how nucleotides pair in the DNA structure.

Uploaded by

Cindy
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© © All Rights Reserved
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1

DNA --> RNA --> Protein

Ava Chiao
Douglas Wilkin, Ph.D.
Jean Brainard, Ph.D.

To access the online version of this FlexBook


click the link below:
https://www.ck12.org/user:749689bc3431/book/dna-rna-protei
n/

2
AU T HO R S
To access a customizable version of this book, as well as
Ava Chiao
other interactive content, visit www.ck12.org
Douglas Wilkin,
Ph.D.
CK-12 Foundation is a non-profit organization with a mission
Jean Brainard, Ph.D.
to reduce the cost of textbook materials for the K-12 market
both in the U.S. and worldwide. Using an open-source,
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Printed: January 12, 2024 (PST)

3
MAIN CONTENT
1 Central Dogma
1.1 Central Dogma 6
1.2 References 8
2 The DNA Double Helix - Advanced
2.1 The DNA Double Helix - Advanced 10
2.2 References 15
3 Chargaff's Base-Pairing Rules - Advanced
3.1 Chargaff's Base-Pairing Rules - 17
Advanced
3.2 References 20
4 DNA Structure and Replication
4.1 DNA Structure and Replication 22
4.2 References 27
5 RNA
5.1 RNA 29
5.2 References 33
6 Transcription
6.1 Transcription 35
6.2 References 41
7 Genetic Code
7.1 Genetic Code 43
7.2 References 48
8 Translation
8.1 Translation 50
8.2 References 54

4
CHAPTER
1
Central Dogma
Chapter Outline

1.1 Central Dogma

1.2 References

5
1.1. Central Dogma www. c k 12 .org

1.0 Central Dogma


Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: Ms. C
Last Modified: Aug 07, 2020

[Figure 1]

Is it always DNA to RNA to proteins?

The central dogma of molecular biology. Coined by Francis Crick. And in his own words, "I
called this idea the central dogma, for two reasons, I suspect. I had already used the obvious
word hypothesis in the sequence hypothesis, and in addition I wanted to suggest that this
new assumption was more central and more powerful."

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

Your DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, contains the genes that determine who you are. How
can this organic molecule control your characteristics? DNA contains instructions for all the
proteins your body makes. Proteins, in turn, determine the structure and function of all your
cells. What determines a protein’s structure? It begins with the sequence of amino acids
that make up the protein. Instructions for making proteins with the correct sequence of
amino acids are encoded in DNA.

DNA is found in chromosomes. In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes always remain in the


nucleus, but proteins are made at ribosomes in the cytoplasm. How do the instructions in
DNA get to the site of protein synthesis outside the nucleus? Another type of nucleic acid is
responsible. This nucleic acid is RNA, or ribonucleic acid. RNA is a small molecule that can
squeeze through pores in the nuclear membrane. It carries the information from DNA in the
nucleus to a ribosome in the cytoplasm and then helps assemble the protein. In short:

DNA → RNA → Protein

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1.1. Central Dogma www. c k 12 .org

Discovering this sequence of events was a major milestone in molecular biology. It is called
the central dogma of molecular biology. The two processes involved in the central dogma
are transcription and translation.

https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/156127

Summary

The central dogma of molecular biology states that DNA contains instructions for making
a protein, which are copied by RNA.

RNA then uses the instructions to make a protein.

In short: DNA → RNA → Protein, or DNA to RNA to Protein.

Review

1. State the central dogma of molecular biology.

2. What are transcription and translation?

3. Explain the central dogma of molecular biology.

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1.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

8
CHAPTER
2
The DNA Double Helix -
Advanced
Chapter Outline

2.1 The DNA Double Helix - Advanced

2.2 References

9
2.1. The DNA Double Helix - Advanced www. c k 12 .org

2.0 The DNA Double Helix - Advanced


Difficulty Level: Advanced | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Aug 17, 2016

[Figure 1]

How do sugars, phosphate groups and bases form DNA?

In an extremely elegant model, that's how. The base-pairing rules tell us that A always pairs
with T, and G always pairs with C. But how does all this information, all these nucleotides,
form the molecule known as DNA? It took the work of four distinguished scientists, three
distinguished gentlemen one under-appreciated legendary woman, to solve this mystery.

The Double Helix

In the early 1950s, Rosalind Franklin started working on understanding the structure of DNA
fibers. Franklin, together with Maurice Wilkins, used her expertise in x-ray diffraction
photographic techniques to analyze the structure of DNA. In February 1953, Francis Crick
and James D. Watson of the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge University had started to
build a model of DNA. Watson and Crick indirectly obtained Franklin's DNA X-ray diffraction
data demonstrating crucial information into the DNA structure. Francis Crick and James
Watson (Figure below) then published their double helical model of DNA in Nature on April
25th, 1953.

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2.1. The DNA Double Helix - Advanced www. c k 12 .org

[Figure 2]

James Watson (left, about the time of the discovery of the double helix) and Francis Crick
(right, photo taken many years later).

DNA has the shape of a double helix, just like a spiral staircase (Figure below). As a nucleic
acid, DNA is composed of nucleotide monomers, consisting of the deoxyribose sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (A, C, G or T). There are two sides to the double
helix, called the sugar-phosphate backbone, as they are made from alternating phosphate
groups and deoxyribose sugars. The “steps” of the double helix are made from the base
pairs formed between the nitrogenous bases. The DNA double helix is held together by
hydrogen bonds between the bases attached to the two strands.

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2.1. The DNA Double Helix - Advanced www. c k 12 .org

[Figure 3]

The DNA double helix. The two sides are the sugar-phosphate backbones, composed of
alternating phosphate groups and deoxyribose sugars. The nitrogenous bases face the
center of the double helix. As the base-pairing rules tell us, A always pairs with T, and G
always pairs with C.

Complementary Base Pairs

The double helical nature of DNA, together with the findings of Chargaff, demonstrated the
base-pairing nature of the bases. Adenine always pairs with thymine, and guanine always
pairs with cytosine (Figure below). Because of this complementary nature of DNA, the bases
on one strand determine the bases on the other strand. These complementary base pairs
explain why the amounts of guanine and cytosine are present in equal amounts, as are the
amounts of adenine and thymine. Adenine and guanine are known as purines. These bases
consist of two ring structures. Purines make up one of the two groups of nitrogenous bases.
Thymine and cytosine are pyrimidines, which have just one ring structure. By having a
purine always combine with a pyrimidine in the DNA double helix, the distance between the
two sugar-phosphate backbones is constant, maintaining the uniform shape of the DNA
molecule.

Anti-parallel Strands

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The two strands in the DNA backbone run in "anti-parallel" directions to each other. That is,
one of the DNA strands is built in the 5' → 3' direction, while the complementary strand is
built in the 3' → 5' direction. In the DNA backbone, the sugars are joined together by
phosphate groups that form bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent
sugars. In a double helix, the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their
direction in the other strand. 5' and 3' each mark one end of a strand. A strand running in the
5' → 3' direction that has adenine will pair with base thymine on the complementary strand
running in 3' → 5' direction.

[Figure 4]

The base-pairing nature of DNA. Adenine always pairs with thymine, and they are held
together with two hydrogen bonds. The guanine-cytosine base pair is held together with
three hydrogen bonds. Note that one sugar-phosphate backbone is in the 5’ → 3’ direction,
with the other strand in the opposite 3’ → 5’ orientation. Notice that the 5'-end begins with a
free (not attached to the sugar of another nucleotide) phosphate group, while the 3'-end has
a free (not attached to the phosphate group of another nucleotide) deoxyribose sugar.

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Four Letter Code

DNA is made of a four letter code, made of just As, Cs, Gs, and Ts, that determines what the
organism will become and what it will look like. How can these four bases carry so much
information? This information results from the order of these four bases in the
chromosomes. This sequence carries the unique genetic information for each species and
each individual. Humans have about 3,000,000,000 bits of this information in each cell; 3
billion bases in the genome. A gorilla may also have close to that amount of information, but
a slightly different sequence. For example, the sequence 5'-AGGTTTACCAGT-3' will have
different information than 5'-CAAGGGATTACT-3'. The closer the evolutionary relationship is
between two species, the more similar their DNA sequences will be. For example, the DNA
sequences between two species of reptiles will be more similar than between a reptile and
an elm tree.

DNA sequences can be used for scientific, medical, and forensic purposes. DNA sequences
can be used to establish evolutionary relationships between species, to determine a
person’s susceptibility to inherit or develop a certain disease, or to identify crime suspects
or victims. Of course, DNA analysis can be used for other purposes as well. So why is DNA
so useful for these purposes? It is useful because every cell in an organism has the same
DNA sequence. For this to occur, each cell must have a mechanism to copy its entire DNA.
How can so much information be exactly copied in such a small amount of time?

Summary

Watson and Crick demonstrated the double helix model of DNA.

The two strands of the DNA double helix are complementary and run in anti-parallel
directions.

Review

1. Explain Watson and Crick’s double helix model of DNA.

2. Explain why complementary base pairing is necessary to maintain the double helix
shape of the DNA molecule.

3. In what direction do the two strands in the DNA backbone run to each other?

4. What is the four letter code?

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2.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: Hana Zavadska;Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats)


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CC BY-NC 3.0

Credit: Watson: Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine; Crick: Marc Lieberman;Laura Guerin;Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats)
Source: Watson: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/galleries/technologies/dna_image_7.html; Crick: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Francis_Crick.png;CK-
12 Foundation
License: Watson: Public Domain; Crick: CC BY 2.5;CC BY-NC 3.0

Credit: DNA: Image copyright ermess, 2014; Staircase: Andrew Gould;Laura Guerin
Source: DNA: http://www.shutterstock.com; Staircase: http://www.flickr.com/photos/27950702@N04/3644533740;CK-12 Foundation
License: DNA: License from Shutterstock; Staircase: CC BY 2.0

Credit: Hana Zavadska;Laura Guerin


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CC BY-NC 3.0

15
CHAPTER
3
Chargaff's Base-Pairing
Rules - Advanced
Chapter Outline

3.1 Chargaff's Base-Pairing Rules - Advanced

3.2 References

16
3.1. Chargaff's Base-Pairing Rules - Advanced www. c k 12 .org

3.0 Chargaff's Base-Pairing Rules - Advanced


Difficulty Level: Advanced | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Aug 17, 2016

How do these four structures form DNA?

In an extremely elegant model, that's how. The model of DNA predicts how the DNA
sequence can code for proteins, and how the molecule can be replicated. But one initial
significant step was to understand the base-pairing rules.

Chargaff’s Rules

It was known that DNA is composed of nucleotides, each of which contains a nitrogen-
containing base, a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), and a phosphate group. In these
nucleotides, there is one of the four possible bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C),
or thymine (T) (Figure below). Adenine and guanine are purine bases, and cytosine and
thymine are pyrimidine bases.

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3.1. Chargaff's Base-Pairing Rules - Advanced www. c k 12 .org

[Figure 2]

Chemical structure of the four nitrogenous bases in DNA. Notice how the purines (A and G)
are composed of two ring structures, whereas the pyrimidines (T and C) are composed of
one ring structure. The DNA of all species has the same four nitrogen bases.

Erwin Chargaff (1905-2002), an Austrian-American biochemist from Columbia University,


analyzed the base composition of the DNA of various species. This led him to propose two
main rules that have been appropriately named Chargaff's rules.

Rule 1

Chargaff determined that in DNA, the amount of one base, a purine, always approximately
equals the amount of a particular second base, a pyrimidine. Specifically, that in any double-
stranded DNA the number of guanine units equals approximately the the number of
cytosine units and the number of adenine units equals approximately the number of
thymine units.

Human DNA is 30.9% A and 29.4% T, 19.9% G and 19.8% C. The rule constitutes the basis of
base pairs in the DNA double helix: A always pairs with T, and G always pairs with C. He
also demonstrated that the number of purines (A+G) always approximates the number of
pyrimidines (T+C), an obvious consequence of the base-pairing nature of the DNA double
helix.

Rule 2

In 1947 Chargaff showed that the composition of DNA, in terms of the relative amounts of
the A, C, G and T bases, varied from one species to another. This molecular diversity added
evidence that DNA could be the genetic material.

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3.1. Chargaff's Base-Pairing Rules - Advanced www. c k 12 .org

Samples

Table below is a representation of Erwin Chargaff's 1952 data. This table lists the base
composition of DNA from various organisms. Data from this table supports both of Chargaff's
rules.

Organism %A %G %C %T A/T G/C %GC %AT

E. coli 24.7 26.0 25.7 23.6 1.05 1.01 51.7 48.3

Yeast 31.3 18.7 17.1 32.9 0.95 1.09 35.8 64.4

Maize 26.8 22.8 23.2 27.2 0.99 0.98 46.1 54.0

Wheat 27.3 22.7 22.8 27.1 1.01 1.00 45.5 54.4

Grasshopper 29.3 20.5 20.7 29.3 1.00 0.99 41.2 58.6

Sea Urchin 32.8 17.7 17.3 32.1 1.02 1.02 35.0 64.9

Octopus 33.2 17.6 17.6 31.6 1.05 1.00 35.2 64.8

Chicken 28.0 22.0 21.6 28.4 0.99 1.02 43.7 56.4

Rat 28.6 21.4 20.5 28.4 1.01 1.00 42.9 57.0

Human 29.3 20.7 20.0 30.0 0.98 1.04 40.7 59.3

Summary

Chargaff's rule 1 is that the number of guanine units approximately equals the number of
cytosine units and the number of adenine units approximately equals the number of
thymine units.

Chargaff's rule 2 is that the composition of DNA varied from one species to another.

The base paring rules state that A always pairs with T and G always pairs with C.

Review

1. Explain the contribution of Erwin Chargaff to the identification of DNA as the heredity
material.

2. What are the base pairing rules?

3. What is a purine and a pyrimidine? Name them.

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3.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: Hana Zavadska


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CC BY-NC 3.0

20
CHAPTER
4
DNA Structure and
Replication
Chapter Outline

4.1 DNA Structure and Replication

4.2 References

21
4.1. DNA Structure and Replication www. c k 12 .org

4.0 DNA Structure and Replication


Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: Ms. C
Last Modified: Aug 26, 2020

[Figure 1]

How do these four structures form DNA?

In an extremely elegant model, that's how. As you will soon see, the model predicts how the
DNA sequence can code for proteins, and how the molecule can be replicated.

DNA Structure and Replication

Chargaff's Rules

Other important discoveries about DNA were made in the mid-1900s by Erwin Chargaff. He
studied DNA from many different species. He was especially interested in the four different
nitrogen bases of DNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) (see Figure
below). Chargaff found that concentrations of the four bases differed from one species to
another. However, within each species, the concentration of adenine was always about the
same as the concentration of thymine. The same was true of the concentrations of guanine
and cytosine. These observations came to be known as Chargaff’s rules. The significance
of the rules would not be revealed until the structure of DNA was discovered.

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[Figure 2]

Nitrogen Bases in DNA. The DNA of all species has the same four nitrogen bases.

The Double Helix

After DNA was found to be the genetic material, scientists wanted to learn more about it.
James Watson and Francis Crick are usually given credit for discovering that DNA has a
double helix shape, like a spiral staircase (see Figure below). The discovery was based on
the prior work of Rosalind Franklin and other scientists, who had used X rays to learn more
about DNA’s structure. Franklin and these other scientists have not always been given credit
for their contributions.

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4.1. DNA Structure and Replication www. c k 12 .org

[Figure 3]

The DNA molecule has a double helix shape. This is the same basic shape as a spiral
staircase. Do you see the resemblance? Which parts of the DNA molecule are like the steps
of the spiral staircase?

The double helix shape of DNA, together with Chargaff’s rules, led to a better
understanding of DNA. DNA, as a nucleic acid, is made from nucleotide monomers, and the
DNA double helix consists of two polynucleotide chains. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar
(deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base (A, C, G, or T).

Scientists concluded that bonds (hydrogen bonds) between complementary bases hold
together the two polynucleotide chains of DNA. Adenine always bonds with its
complementary base, thymine. Cytosine always bonds with its complementary base,
guanine. If you look at the nitrogen bases in Figure above, you will see why. Adenine and
guanine have a two-ring structure. Cytosine and thymine have just one ring. If adenine were
to bind with guanine and cytosine with thymine, the distance between the two DNA chains
would be variable. However, when a one-ring molecule binds with a two-ring molecule, the
distance between the two chains is kept constant. This maintains the uniform shape of the
DNA double helix. These base pairs (A-T or G-C) stick into the middle of the double helix,
forming, in essence, the steps of the spiral staircase.

DNA Replication

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4.1. DNA Structure and Replication www. c k 12 .org

Knowledge of DNA’s structure helped scientists understand how DNA replicates. DNA
replication is the process in which DNA is copied. It occurs during the synthesis (S) phase of
the eukaryotic cell cycle. DNA replication begins when an enzyme, DNA helicase, breaks
the bonds between complementary bases in DNA (see Figure below). This exposes the
bases inside the molecule so they can be “read” by another enzyme, DNA polymerase, and
used to build two new DNA strands with complementary bases, also by DNA polymerase.
The two daughter molecules that result each contain one strand from the parent molecule
and one new strand that is complementary to it. As a result, the two daughter molecules are
both identical to the parent molecule. DNA replication is a semi-conservative process
because half of the parent DNA molecule is conserved in each of the two daughter DNA
molecules.

The process of DNA replication is actually much more complex than this simple summary.

[Figure 4]

DNA Replication. DNA replication is a semi-conservative process. Half of the parent DNA
molecule is conserved in each of the two daughter DNA molecules.

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4.1. DNA Structure and Replication www. c k 12 .org

https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/176567

Summary

Chargaff's rules state that the amount of A is similar to the amount of T, and the amount
of G is similar to the amount of C.

Watson and Crick discovered that DNA has a double helix shape, consisting of two
polynucleotide chains held together by bonds between complementary bases.

DNA replication is semi-conservative: half of the parent DNA molecule is conserved in


each of the two daughter DNA molecules.

Review

1. What are Chargaff’s rules?

2. Identify the structure of the DNA molecule.

3. What are nucleotides? What makes up a nucleotide?

4. Why is DNA replication said to be semi-conservative?

5. Create a diagram that shows how DNA replication occurs.

6. What is complementary base pairing? Explain why complementary base pairing is


necessary to maintain the double helix shape of the DNA molecule.

26
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4.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Hana Zavadska


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CC BY-NC 3.0

Credit: DNA: Jerome Walker; Staircase: zephylwer0


Source: DNA: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DNA_double_helix_horizontal.png; Staircase: https://pixabay.com/photos/architecture-skyscraper-old-sad-1001176/
License: DNA: Public Domain; Staircase: Pixabay License

Credit: Madeleine Price Ball


Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DNA_replication_split.svg
License: Public Domain

27
CHAPTER
5
RNA
Chapter Outline

5.1 RNA

5.2 References

28
5.1. RNA www. c k 12 .org

5.0 RNA
Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Sep 24, 2016

[Figure 1]

How does the information move from the nucleus, where the DNA is located,
to the cytoplasm, where the ribosomes are?

RNA, the other nucleic acid, that's how. Specifically mRNA. RNA, the middle player in the
central dogma. This image is an abstract representation of tRNA. Without tRNA, mRNA, and
rRNA, proteins cannot be made.

RNA

DNA alone cannot ‘‘tell’’ your cells how to make proteins. It needs the help of RNA,
ribonucleic acid, the other main player in the central dogma of molecular biology.
Remember, DNA ‘‘lives’’ in the nucleus, but proteins are made on the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm. How does the genetic information get from the nucleus to the cytoplasm? RNA is
the answer.

RNA vs. DNA

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5.1. RNA www. c k 12 .org

RNA, like DNA, is a nucleic acid. However, RNA differs from DNA in several ways. In
addition to being smaller than DNA, RNA also

consists of one nucleotide chain instead of two,

contains the nitrogen base uracil (U) instead of thymine,

contains the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose.

Types of RNA

There are three main types of RNA, all of which are involved in making proteins.

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies the genetic instructions from DNA in the nucleus, and
carries the instructions to the cytoplasm.

2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) helps form ribosomes, the organelle where proteins are
assembled.

3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to ribosomes, where they are joined together
to form proteins.

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[Figure 2]

Shown are the three types of RNA and their roles: (1) mRNA contains the genetic message,
(2) tRNA transfers the amino acids to the ribosome, (3) rRNA is the main component of the
ribosome. More on the roles of the RNAs will be discussed in these concepts: ‘‘Transcription
of DNA to RNA’’, ‘‘Genetic Code’’, and ‘‘Translation of RNA to Protein’’.

Summary

RNA differs from DNA in several ways.

There are three main types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and
transfer RNA (tRNA).

Each type plays a different in role in making proteins.

Review

1. What are the three main types of RNA? Describe their roles.

2. Compare and contrast DNA and RNA.

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

RNA single-stranded nucleic acid that helps make proteins.

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5.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: Courtesy of Nicolle Rager Fuller, National Science Foundation


Source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_images.jsp?cntn_id=104402&org=NSF
License: Public Domain

Credit: Marilee Bailey, courtesy of U.S. Department of Energy


Source: http://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/publicat/tko/index.shtml
License: Public Domain

33
CHAPTER
6
Transcription
Chapter Outline

6.1 Transcription

6.2 References

34
6.1. Transcription www. c k 12 .org

6.0 Transcription
Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Sep 24, 2016

[Figure 1]

How does a cell use the information in its DNA?

To transcribe means ‘‘to paraphrase or summarize in writing’’. The information in DNA is


transcribed - or summarized - into a smaller version - RNA - that can be used by the cell. This
process is called transcription.

Transcription

The process in which cells make proteins is called protein synthesis. It actually consists of
two processes: transcription and translation. Transcription takes place in the nucleus. It
uses DNA as a template to make an RNA molecule. RNA then leaves the nucleus and goes
to a ribosome in the cytoplasm, where translation occurs. Translation reads the genetic code
in mRNA and makes a protein.

Transcription is the first part of the central dogma of molecular biology: DNA → RNA. It is the
transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA). During transcription, a
strand of mRNA is made that is complementary to a strand of DNA. Figure below shows how
this occurs.

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[Figure 2]

Overview of Transcription. Transcription uses the sequence of bases in a strand of DNA to


make a complementary strand of mRNA. Triplets are groups of three successive nucleotide
bases in DNA. Codons are complementary groups of bases in mRNA.

Steps of Transcription

Transcription takes place in three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. The steps
are illustrated in Figure below.

1. Initiation is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase
binds to a region of a gene called the promoter. This signals the DNA to unwind so the
enzyme can ‘‘read’’ the bases in one of the DNA strands. The enzyme is now ready to
make a strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases.

2. Elongation is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand. RNA polymerase reads
the unwound DNA strand and builds the mRNA molecule, using complementary base
pairs. There is a brief time during this process when the newly formed RNA is bound to
the unwound DNA. During this process, an adenine (A) in the DNA binds to an uracil (U)
in the RNA.

3. Termination is the ending of transcription, and occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a
stop (termination) sequence in the gene. The mRNA strand is complete, and it detaches
from DNA.

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[Figure 3]

Steps of Transcription. Transcription occurs in the three steps - initiation, elongation, and
termination - shown here.

Processing mRNA

In eukaryotes, the new mRNA is not yet ready for translation. It must go through additional
processing before it leaves the nucleus. This may include splicing, editing, and
polyadenylation. These processes modify the mRNA in various ways. Such modifications
allow a single gene to be used to make more than one protein.

Splicing removes introns from mRNA (see Figure below). Introns are regions that do not
code for proteins. The remaining mRNA consists only of regions that do code for
proteins, which are called exons. Ribonucleoproteins are nucleoproteins that contains
RNA. Small nuclear ribonuclearproteins are involved in pre-mRNA splicing.

Editing changes some of the nucleotides in mRNA. For example, the human protein
called APOB, which helps transport lipids in the blood, has two different forms because

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of editing. One form is smaller than the other because editing adds a premature stop
signal in the mRNA.

Polyadenylation adds a “tail” to the mRNA. The tail consists of a string of As (adenine
bases). It signals the end of mRNA. It is also involved in exporting mRNA from the
nucleus. In addition, the tail protects mRNA from enzymes that might break it down.

[Figure 4]

Splicing. Splicing removes introns from mRNA. UTR is an untranslated region of the mRNA.

https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/155995

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Summary

Transcription is the DNA → RNA part of the central dogma of molecular biology.

Transcription occurs in the nucleus.

During transcription, a copy of mRNA is made that is complementary to a strand of DNA.


In eukaryotes, mRNA may be modified before it leaves the nucleus.

Review

1. What is protein synthesis?

2. What enzyme is involved in transcription?

3. Describe transcription.

4. Describe splicing. Distinguish introns from exons.

5. How may mRNA be modified before it leaves the nucleus?

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

editing alters or changes some of the nucleotides in mRNA.

elongation the addition of nucleotides to the growing mRNA strand.

exon protein coding region of a gene or mRNA.

initiation the beginning of transcription; occurs when RNA polymerase


binds to the promoter of a gene.

intron non-coding or non-regulatory region of a gene or mRNA;


removed prior to translation.

polyadenylation a process that adds a poly tail of adenine bases to the mRNA;
signals the end of mRNA.

promoter region of a gene where a RNA polymerase binds to initiate


transcription of the gene.

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protein synthesis process in which cells make proteins; includes transcription


(DNA to mRNA) and translation (mRNA to protein).

RNA polymerase enzyme that transcribes DNA, making mRNA.

termination the ending of transcription; occurs when RNA polymerase


crosses a stop (termination) sequence in the gene.

transcription process in which genetic instructions in DNA are copied to form


a complementary strand of mRNA.

translation process in which the genetic code in mRNA is read to make a


protein.

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6.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CC BY-NC 3.0

Credit: Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CC BY-NC 3.0

Credit: Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CC BY-NC 3.0

41
CHAPTER
7
Genetic Code
Chapter Outline

7.1 Genetic Code

7.2 References

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7.0 Genetic Code


Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Sep 24, 2016

[Figure 1]

How do you go from four letters to 20 amino acids?

You need a code. And the code that changes the information embedded in DNA and RNA
into ordered amino acids and proteins is the genetic code. And every living organism uses
the same genetic code.

The Genetic Code

How is the information in a gene encoded? The answer is the genetic code. The genetic
code consists of the sequence of nitrogen bases—A, C, G, U—in an mRNA chain. The four
bases make up the “letters” of the genetic code. The letters are combined in groups of three
to form code “words,” called codons. Each codon stands for (encodes) one amino acid,
unless it codes for a start or stop signal.

There are 20 common amino acids in proteins. There are 64 possible codons, more than
enough to code for the 20 amino acids. The genetic code is shown in Figure below.

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[Figure 2]

The Genetic Code. To find the amino acid for a particular codon, find the cell in the table for
the first and second bases of the codon. Then, within that cell, find the codon with the
correct third base. For example CUG codes for leucine, AAG codes for lysine, and GGG
codes for glycine.

Reading the Genetic Code

As shown in Figure above, the codon AUG codes for the amino acid methionine. This codon
is also the start codon that begins translation. The start codon establishes the reading frame
of mRNA. The reading frame is the way the letters are divided into codons. After the AUG
start codon, the next three letters are read as the second codon. The next three letters after
that are read as the third codon, and so on. This is illustrated in Figure below. The mRNA
molecule is read, codon by codon, until a stop codon is reached. UAG, UGA, and UAA are
all stop codons. They do not code for any amino acids. Stop codons are also known as
termination codons.

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[Figure 3]

Reading the Genetic Code. The genetic code is read three bases at a time. Codons are the
code words of the genetic code. Which amino acid does codon 2 in the drawing stand for?

Characteristics of the Genetic Code

The genetic code has a number of important characteristics.

The genetic code is universal. All known living organisms use the same genetic code.
This shows that all organisms share a common evolutionary history.

The genetic code is unambiguous. Each codon codes for just one amino acid (or start or
stop). What might happen if codons encoded more than one amino acid?

The genetic code is redundant. Most amino acids are encoded by more than one codon.
In Figure above, how many codons code for the amino acid threonine? What might be an
advantage of having more than one codon for the same amino acid?

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https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/176303

Summary

The genetic code consists of the sequence of bases in DNA or RNA.

Groups of three bases form codons, and each codon stands for one amino acid (or start or
stop).

The codons are read in sequence following the start codon until a stop codon is reached.

The genetic code is universal, unambiguous, and redundant.

Review

1. What is the genetic code?

2. What are codons? How many codons are there?

3. Use the genetic code to translate the following segment of RNA into a sequence of five
amino acids: GUC-GCG-CAU-AGC-AAG

4. The genetic code is universal, unambiguous, and redundant. Explain what this means.

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

codon group of three nitrogen bases in RNA or DNA that is the genetic
code word for a single amino acid or for a start or stop signal.

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genetic code universal code of three-base codons that encodes the genetic
instructions for the amino acid sequence of proteins.

reading frame the three base frame that divides the bases into codons.

start codon codon that begins translation; AUG.

stop codon codon that does not code for an amino acid; UAG, UGA, and
UAA; also known as a termination codon.

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7.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Hana Zavadska


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CC BY-NC 3.0

Credit: Zachary Wilson


Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CC BY-NC 3.0

48
CHAPTER
8
Translation
Chapter Outline

8.1 Translation

8.2 References

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8.1. Translation www. c k 12 .org

8.0 Translation
Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Sep 24, 2016

[Figure 1]

RNA to proteins. How?

You must translate. To go from one language to another. Spanish to English, French to
German, or nucleotides to amino acids. Which type is the translation of molecular biology?
Obviously, the type of translating discussed here translates from the language of
nucleotides to the language of amino acids.

Translation

Translation is the second part of the central dogma of molecular biology: RNA → Protein. It is
the process in which the genetic code in mRNA is read, one codon at a time, to make a
protein. Figure below shows how this happens. After mRNA leaves the nucleus, it moves to
a ribosome, which consists of rRNA and proteins. The ribosome reads the sequence of
codons in mRNA. Molecules of tRNA bring amino acids to the ribosome in the correct
sequence.

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[Figure 2]

Translation of the codons in mRNA to a chain of amino acids occurs at a ribosome. Notice
the growing amino acid chain attached to the tRNAs and ribosome. Find the different types
of RNA in the diagram. What are their roles in translation?

To understand the role of tRNA, you need to know more about its structure. Each tRNA
molecule has an anticodon for the amino acid it carries. An anticodon is a sequence of 3
bases, and is complementary to the codon for an amino acid. For example, the amino acid
lysine has the codon AAG, so the anticodon is UUC. Therefore, lysine would be carried by a
tRNA molecule with the anticodon UUC. Wherever the codon AAG appears in mRNA, a UUC
anticodon on a tRNA temporarily binds to the codon. While bound to the mRNA, the tRNA
gives up its amino acid. Bonds form between adjacent amino acids as they are brought one
by one to the ribosome, forming a polypeptide chain. The chain of amino acids keeps
growing until a stop codon is reached.

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[Figure 3]

The tRNA structure is a very important aspect in its role. Though the molecule folds into a 3-
leaf clover structure, notice the anticodon arm in the lower segment of the molecule, with
the amino acid attached at the opposite end of the molecule (acceptor stem). It is the
anticodon that determines which codon in the mRNA the tRNA will bind to.

After a polypeptide chain is synthesized, it may undergo additional processes. For example,
it may assume a folded shape due to interactions among its amino acids. It may also bind
with other polypeptides or with different types of molecules, such as lipids or carbohydrates.
Many proteins travel to the Golgi apparatus to be modified for the specific job they will do.

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Summary

Translation is the RNA → Protein part of the central dogma.

Translation occurs at a ribosome.

During translation, a protein is synthesized using the codons in mRNA as a guide.

All three types of RNA play a role in translation.

Review

1. Outline the steps of translation.

2. Discuss the structure of a tRNA molecule, and its role in translation.

3. How are transcription and translation related to the central dogma of molecular biology?

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

anticodon sequence of 3 bases in the tRNA molecule at the site where the
tRNA and mRNA bind; complementary to the codon in the
mRNA.

polypeptide a chain of 10-100 amino acids that can combine with other such
chains or operate independently to make up a protein.

ribosome structure found in all cells that is the site of protein synthesis.

translation process in which the genetic code in mRNA is read to make a


protein.

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8.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: PublicDomainPictures
Source: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/background-cloud-different-global-20860/
License: Pixabay License

Credit: Original image by the National Human Genome Research Institute, redrawn by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation
Source: CK-12 Foundation; Original image from: http://www.genome.gov/Glossary/index.cfm?id=200
License: CC BY-NC 3.0

Credit: Kyle Schneider


Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TRNA_all2.png
License: Public Domain

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